Urban plant life

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leaves, as well as seeds, are eaten in many parts of the world. In Australia, this plant was also a source of food during the 19th Century. In 1889, botanist Joseph Maiden (1859-1925) wrote: “It is an excellent substitute for spinach, being far superior to much of the leaves of the white beet sold for spinach in Sydney. Next to spinach it seems to be most like boiled nettle leaves, which when young are used in England, and are excellent. This amarantus should be cooked like spinach, and as it becomes more widely known, it is sure to be popular, except amongst persons who may consider it beneath their dignity to have anything to do with so common a weed.” (Source: T. Low, 1985. Wild Herbs of Australia & New Zealand. Angus & Robertson)

In India, slender amaranth is utilized in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.

Amaranth species are also known as pigweeds. In his delightful book All about Weeds, Dover Publications (1974), American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) says about a close relative, A. retroflexus:“One of the most robust, devil-may-care weeds is the pigweed. ‘Careless weed’ is another of its common names, and it comes by this name honestly enough. In good rich soil, it cares for nothing. Wind, hail, fair weather and foul are all the same to the pigweed. Nor does it care what plants are its competitors. It can usually shoulder our any plant within reach, and it has a considerable reach. The name pigweed, however, has no reference to the piggish nature of the plant. It refers to the gustatory pleasure the weed affords pigs. Hogs will leave their corn to feast on pigweeds. In spite of its bristly appearance (it always reminds one of a boisterous young sailor with a week’s growth of sandy beard on his face and his cap on the side of his head), the leaves are tender, and if the smacking of lips and satisfied grunts mean the same thing to pigs that they do to Man, the weeds must be delicious.”

In Taiwan, slender amaranth is very common in cities, especially in fallow areas, and along roads and embankments. These pictures are all from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

Silver cockscomb is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The word sumac is derived from Ancient Syriac summaq (‘red’), referring to the red fruits of the genus. They have an acrid taste and are used as a spice. In North America, the fruits of staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) are soaked in cold water to make ‘pink lemonade’, a refreshing beverage, rich in vitamin C.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Goutweed is native to southern Europe and western Asia, but was introduced as a garden plant to northern Europe as early as the Middle Ages. It has also been accidentally introduced to North America, and almost everywhere it has become a most annoying garden weed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The purplish, very hairy stem grows to about 1 m tall, leaves long-stalked, twice or thrice pinnate, pale or dark green, lobes ovate in outline, deeply toothed. Flowers are white. The plant is poisonous.

The generic name is derived from the Greek chairo (‘to please’) and phyllon (‘leaf’), thus ‘with pleasant foliage’. The specific name is from the Latin temulentum (‘drunken’), derived from temetum (‘an intoxicating drink’) and ulentus (‘full of’), alluding to the symptoms from poisoning by the plant being similar to those of alcoholic intoxication.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

English herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) informs us that during the Trojan War the Greek hero Achilles used yarrow to stop bleeding on wounded soldiers. Hence, the name Achillea was applied to the genus by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). It was already mentioned as a medical herb in De simplicium medicamentorum facultatibus, written by Greek-Roman physician, surgeon, and philosopher Aelius Galenus (c. 129-210 A.D.), also known as Claudius Galenus or Galen of Pergamon.

Various plants, including yarrow, were found in a 50-60,000-year-old Neanderthal grave in Iraq, perhaps indicating that these plants were used medicinally. (Source: G.P. Shipley & K. Kindscher 2016. Evidence for the Paleoethnobotany of the Neanderthal: A Review of the Literature. hindawi.com/journals/scientifica/2016/8927654)

The name yarrow is a corruption of gearwe, an ancient Anglo-Saxon name for common yarrow (below).

 

The greyish-green leaves are very finely dissected, aromatic, to 10 cm long. Flowerheads are numerous, sometimes up to 50, borne in a flat or slightly domed cluster to 30 cm across. Ray florets are white, much larger than the tiny yellowish or cream-coloured disc florets. The entire flowerhead is only to 8 mm across.

The specific name is derived from the many fine segments of the leaves, hence its popular names milfoil and thousand-weed. In parts of south-western United States, it is called plumajillo (Spanish for ‘little feather’), likewise alluding to the leaves.

The role of this species in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

In China, this species is sometimes used as a substitute for A. argyii to make moxa, which is much utilized as a healer in traditional Chinese medicine.

 

 

 

 

 

This method of seed dispersal has given it names like beggar-ticks, stickseed, farmer’s friend (ironic!), needle grass, Spanish needles, stick-tight, cobbler’s pegs, Devil’s needles, and Devil’s pitchfork. Other names include blackjack and hairy bidens.

A South African website, farmersweekly.co.za/animals/horses/beware-those-blackjacks, says: “The common blackjack is not only an irritant to horses, (but) can cause them injury. (…) There can be few of us who have not spent ages picking them off our clothes after walking through the veld to catch horses in the early winter. Blackjacks that become entangled in the forelock of a horse can be a great irritant, and the animal will toss its head, if you try to remove them. The spines can injure the eyes, so it’s better to clip the forelocks short. Blackjacks can also get caught up in the long hair behind the fetlocks and pasterns, causing chronic irritation and lameness.”

Downy bur-marigold is reported to be a weed of 31 crops in more than 40 countries, Latin America and eastern Africa having the worst infestations. (Source: cabi.org/isc/datasheet/9148)

However, this species is not only a troublesome weed, but also has medicinal properties. In traditional Chinese medicine, it is used for a large number of ailments, including influenza, colds, fever, sore throat, appendicitis, hepatitis, malaria, and haemorrhoids. Due to its high content of fiber, it is beneficial to the cardiovascular system, and it has been used with success in treatment of diabetes.

In Taiwan, downy bur-marigold is extremely common, often covering huge areas, including in cities, where it pops up everywhere, as is obvious from the pictures below, all from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The numerous flowerheads, to 1 cm across, are in terminal clusters. Ray florets are missing, disc florets have a unique reddish-brown colour, more rarely orange or yellow. Leaves are mostly elliptic, to 12 cm long and 5 cm wide, hairless, margin irregularly toothed, sometimes pinnately lobed at the base.

It is used medicinally for indigestion and diarrhoea, and to invigorate the spleen. In Nepal, juice of the plant is applied to wounds, and young leaves and stems are eaten as a vegetable.

The generic name is from the Latin crassus (‘thick’, ‘stout’), and the Greek kephale (‘head’), alluding to the flowerheads, which are grouped in relatively large, robust inflorescences. The specific name means ‘resembling Crepis‘ (see below).

Other pictures, depicting Crassocephalum, are shown on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This plant is also known as Cupid’s shaving brush, named for Cupid, the Roman god of desire, eroticism, and affection, alluding to the tiny flowerheads, which resemble miniature shaving brushes. The specific name is derived from the Greek sonchos, the ancient name for sow-thistles, and the Latin folium (‘leaf’). The leaves of this plant often resemble those of Sonchus oleraceus (see below). However, they vary tremendously, from lyrate and pinnatifid to almost entire.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This plant contains an oil with a turpentine-like smell, which, supposedly, should deter fleas, hence its common name. Another popular name is bloodstanch, given by herbalists, who claim that an extract from leaves and flowers arrests haemorrhages from the lungs and alimentary tract.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The stem is branched, sometimes growing to 75 cm tall, but usually much lower. The leaves are opposite, stalked or sessile, broadly lanceolate, to 11 cm long and 7 cm wide, margin weakly toothed. The flowerheads are tiny, to 5 mm across. The ray florets, usually 5, but sometimes up to 8, are usually white, sometimes pink, 3-lobed, to 1.8 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, disc florets yellow.

Leaves, stem and flowers are edible, and the subtle flavour, reminiscent of artichoke, develops after being cooked. It is also dried and ground into powder for usage in soups. In Nepal, juice of the plant is applied to wounds.

The genus was named in honour of Ignacio Mariano Martinez de Galinsoga (1756-1797), director of the Royal Botanical Garden in Madrid, and physician to the Spanish Queen consort Maria Luisa de Parma. In Britain, the generic name was corrupted to gallant soldiers.

 

 

 

 

 

The natural habitat of this plant is humid areas, such as water-logged fields, but it is also able to thrive in drier areas, including city streets. In Russia, it has been used in folk medicine to treat high blood pressure.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The stem grows to 1.2 m tall, leaves ovate or elliptic in outline, to 18 cm long and 9 cm wide, pinnately divided, ultimate segments lanceolate to linear, to 5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. Flowerheads to 3 mm across, in open panicles, florets snow-white, ray florets tiny or missing. This plant somewhat resembles certain species of Artemisia (above), but its flowerheads are more flattened, and pure white.

In America, it has a number of popular names, including bitterweed, carrot grass, congress grass, false chamomile, false ragweed, and white-top.

The specific name is from the Greek hystera (‘womb’) and phoros (‘bearing’), maybe alluding to the shape of the flowerheads.

This plant should be handled with caution, as it may cause dermatitis and respiratory malfunction in humans, and, if eaten by livestock, it may cause udder disease.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Originally, sticky groundsel was a native of southern and central Europe and western Asia. Since the 1800s, it has spread considerably, mainly along railroads, and has become naturalized in northern Europe, Canada, United States, and elsewhere.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized form of the Greek sonkhos, the ancient name for sow-thistles.

 

This species presumably originates from the Mediterranean region, but has become naturalized in most parts of the world. In Nepal, a paste of the plant is applied to wounds and boils. It is also collected for fodder, and tender parts are cooked as a vegetable.

In the picture below, prickly sow-thistle is growing in front of a tombstone in the Assistens Cemetery, Copenhagen, placed on the grave of Thorkild Weiss Madsen, who was active in the alternative-lifestyle area of Christiania (described on the page Culture: Folk art around the world.) The stone is shaped as a runic stone with a carved dragon and the following text (approximate translation): ”This stone was erected in memory of Thorkild by his wife and daughter. The good boy Eric the Red carved the runes.”

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin oleris, meaning ‘edible’. Young leaves can be eaten as salad or cooked like spinach. The common name refers to the fact that pigs like to eat this plant, and to the leaves, which resemble young thistle leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The medicinal properties of feverfew are discussed on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

These plants are characterized by stem and leaves having a milky sap, and most species have lobed or serrated leaves. The single flowerhead, 2-6 cm across, is borne on a leafless, hollow stem, 10-20 cm tall, sometimes more. Florets are yellow, very numerous, densely crowded.

Dandelion was first mentioned as a medicinal herb by Arabian physicians in the 10th or 11th Century, who called it a sort of wild endive (Cichorium), under the name of tharakhchakon, which was corrupted to Taraxacum. In French, these plants were named dent de lion (‘lion’s tooth’), alluding to the often strongly serrated leaves. This name was adopted by the English, corrupted to dandelion.

The common dandelion (T. officinale) is a native of the Northern Hemisphere, but has become naturalized in countless countries around the globe. It is ubiquitous in Europe, including in cities, where it readily grows in cracks and between flagstones.

The role of dandelion in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lantern tridax is extremely common in Taiwanese cities, sprouting in cracks everywhere and often covering large areas. The pictures below are all from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An Irish name of the species, clappedepouch, was likewise given in allusion to the long-stalked siliques, which resemble a beggar’s cup. In the old days, lepers would ring a bell, or a clapper, receiving their alms in a cup at the end of a long pole, to avoid people being infected.

The medical usage of shepherd’s purse is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species grows in wasteland and fields, and along roads, also in towns. It is native to Europe and North Africa, but has been spread to most cooler areas of the globe, sometimes cultivated for its edible leaves and seeds.

It was formerly widely used in traditional medicine, reflected in the specific name, which means ‘sold in offices’, i.e. pharmacies. In Ancient Greece, it was believed that the plant was an antidote to all poisons. In his Complete Herbal, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) writes: ”It is good for all diseases of the chest and lungs, hoarseness of voice (…) The juice, made into a syrup with honey or sugar, is no less effectual for all other coughs, wheezing and shortness of breath. The seed is held to be a special remedy against poison and venom.”

“It is named by the French the ‘Singer’s Plant,’ it having been considered up to the time of Louis XIV an infallible remedy for loss of voice.” (Source: botanical.com)

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Latin, meaning ’little bell’. It refers to the bell-shaped flowers of these plants.

 

Several other species of bellflower are described on the page Plants: Flora of the Alps and the Pyrenees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the late 1800s, it was imported to the United States as an ornamental, and for use as an Asian tonic. However, it has escaped in many places, often covering large areas of open ground. The vines grow rapidly during the summer, climbing up and over everything in their path, often forming dense mats, which block light to plants underneath. It is invasive in riparian and floodplain habitats where it displaces native vegetation, prevents the emergence of new plants, and kills newly planted trees installed for streamside habitat restoration. (Source: invasive.org/alien/pubs/midatlantic/huja.htm)

In Taiwan, where Japanese hop is an indigenous species, it is very common, also in cities. The pictures below are from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) named this genus, he let the two showy blue petals of Commelina communis represent two Dutch botanists, Jan Commelijn and his nephew Caspar, whom he wished to honour.

 

In Chinese traditional medicine, the dried plant is utilized to treat a number of ailments, including sore throat, colds, oedema, bruises, and limited urination. A near relative, C. benghalensis, is eaten as a vegetable in Southeast Asia and Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The taxonomy of the plant is not clear. Some authorities recognize only two species of small-flowered Ipomoea with heart-shaped sepals, I. plebeia and I. sinensis, regarding I. biflora as synonymous with either of the two. (Source: eflora of China)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Railroad creeper is extremely common in Taiwan. The pictures below are all from Taichung. In the upper picture, the plant in the foreground is parasol-leaf tree (Macaranga tanarius), also called heart leaf or nasturtium tree, of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Obscure morning-glory is very common in Taiwanese cities. These pictures are from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The species is also utilized in traditional folk medicine. The seeds are emetic and purgative, and they are eaten to expel intestinal worms. Fruit and seeds are also used in treatment of venereal diseases, especially gonorrhea.

The pictures below are from the city of Taichung, Taiwan, where angled luffa often escapes cultivation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘tick’, referring to the seed, which resembles certain species of ticks. Another common name of this plant is Palm of Christ, which refers to the ability of its oil to heal wounds and cure various ailments.

The medical properties of castor oil plant are described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The pictures below are from Taiwan, where this species is extremely common in the lowlands, often invading fallow plots in cities.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

White clover has rather small flowerheads, to 2.5 cm across, flowers white, sometimes with a pinkish flush. The flower-stalks are longer than the leaf-stalks. Stems slender, creeping, rooting at the nodes. Leaflets to 2 cm across, often with a whitish triangular marking near the base.

It is native to Temperate Eurasia and North Africa, but is widely cultivated elsewhere as a fodder plant, bee-plant, or nitrogen-fixer. It grows in open areas, chiefly in fallow fields. It is sometimes encountered in cities.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘with 3 leaves’, referring to the leaflets. It was the classical name of clover. The specific name is also Latin, meaning ‘creeping’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Europe, these plants are known as stork’s-bills, whereas they are called filarees or heron’s bills in North America. These names all refer to the shape of the fruit. The ripe fruit splits into five segments, each with a long, spirally twisting style, with a seed attached at the base. As the style twists, it is able to drill the seed into the soil.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stipules (leaf-like appendices at the base of leaves) are often distinct on these plants. After flowering, the style forms a long, straight or up-curved beak, which separates into 5 elastic spring-like coils, each containing a single seed that is expelled, usually when the style is touched.

The generic name is derived from the Greek geranos (‘crane’), alluding to the fruit, whose shape resembles a crane’s bill.

 

This plant grows in a variety of habitats, including open forests, meadows, grazing grounds, and wastelands. It is native to mountains of central and southern Europe and North Africa, eastwards to Ukraine, the Caucasus, and northern Iran.

It is widely cultivated and has become naturalized in numerous countries, northwards to Scandinavia, Finland, and European Russia, and also in north-eastern North America and Australia.

 

 

 

 

 

The stem is to 50 cm tall, much-branched, hairy or smooth. Leaves are palmate, long-stalked, deeply dissected, to 4 cm long and 7.5 cm wide. The stem is often reddish (var. rubricaule), and the leaves turn red towards the end of the flowering season. The small flowers, to 1.5 cm across, are terminal, usually in pairs, petals pink, to 1.4 cm long.

When touched, the entire plant exudes a strong, unpleasant smell, hence the popular name stinking Bob. This smell is due to the presence of an essential oil.

In former days, this species was known as Saint Robert’s herb, like the specific name referring to French abbot and herbalist Robert de Molesme (c. 1028-1111), one of the founders of the Cistercian Order. He used it to cure people, suffering from various diseases, including diarrhea, liver and gall bladder problems, toothache, and wounds. American native tribes also utilized it medicinally.

In his booklet Chrut und Uchrut (in English called Weeds – a useful booklet on medicinal herbs), from 1911, Swiss priest and herbalist Johann Künzle (1857-1945) states the following: “The application of Herb Robin is also very effective against abscesses and inflammations of cattle. Glory be to God.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows in open areas, including fallow fields, along hedges, and on the inner part of beaches. Stem to 1 m long, erect or ascending, leaves roundish, toothed, with 5-7 lobes, flowers in axillary clusters, petals pale violet or bright pinkish-purple with darker veins.

Several places around the Mediterranean, the leaves are steamed with garlic and tomatoes, eaten as an appetizer or a salad. In Egypt, the leaves are made into a stew-like vegetable dish, known as khobeiza. The leaves were also eaten as a vegetable in Europe in the 19th Century. The flowers were spread on doorways and woven into garlands for celebrating May Day.

In traditional medicine, the seeds were taken internally in tea to relieve irritation or inflammation of the mucous membranes, and the leaves were used in a poultices to soften the skin. A yellow dye can be obtained from the plant.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Taiwan, this species is planted extensively, and escaped specimens may sometimes be encountered.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As its name implies, fibres of paper mulberry were formerly utilized to produce paper, and in parts of the Pacific, cloth is still made from the bark. The wood is used for making furniture and utensils, and the roots can be used as rope. The orange fruit is fleshy and edible, and the leaves can also be eaten when cooked. Fruit, leaves, and bark were formerly used in traditional medicine.

In the United States, paper mulberry was introduced as a fast-growing shade tree, but due to its vigorous growth it soon began to displace native species, and today it is considered to be an invasive in the south-eastern states. In Pakistan, it is regarded as one of the worst weeds, and it is a highly significant invasive plant on the pampas of Argentina. It is also one of the most dominant invasive species in forests of Ghana and Uganda.

In Taiwan, paper mulberry is very common in cities, popping up everywhere, as in these pictures from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Most seeds of these trees begin their life as an epiphyte in a tree, the seed often sprouting in a pile of bird dung, delivered by the bird which ate the fig fruit. Over the years, aerial roots of the young strangler fig grow down to the ground, where they take root, whereas other roots wrap themselves around the host tree, over time completely enveloping the tree, which is eventually strangled to death. As the trunk of the host tree decays, it leaves the fig tree as a hollow cylinder of aerial roots. It readily grows on buildings, too, and is also able to thrive as a normal free-standing tree.

Other fig trees are presented on the page Plants: Ancient and huge trees.

 

 

 

 

 

The fruits, which resemble bramble berries, are edible raw, and a fine jam can be made from them. Caterpillars of the butterfly Calinaga buddha (Nymphalidae) feed on leaves of this tree.

In Taiwan, Japanese mulberry has readily adapted to a life in cities, popping up in cracks everywhere.

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is very widely distributed in northern temperate and subarctic areas, southwards to Morocco, the Himalaya, northern Indochina, Korea, and northern United States.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name refers to the likeness of its leaves to those of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), of the mint family (Lamiaceae).

The pictures below are all from the city of Taichung, Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species closely resembles water primrose-willowherb (L. peploides), which, however, usually has elliptic or ovate leaves and 5 overlapping petals.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where Mexican primrose-willowherb is common in wet habitats, especially along streams.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants vary greatly in size, from dwarves 10 cm high to giants 3 m tall. Most species have yellow flowers, some white, purple, pink, or red. Despite their name, they are not closely related to the true primroses (Primula).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other members of the genus, as well as other parasitic plant genera, are described on the page Plants: Parasitic plants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The native area of the plant is possibly Southeast Asia, but today it has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, and is often regarded as a noxious weed in gardens, fields, and lawns. It may have been introduced to Italy before 1500. It was described scientifically in 1753 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who received specimens from Italy. (Source: Q.J. Groom, J. van der Straeten & I. Hoste 2019. The origin of Oxalis corniculata L. PubMed 30783568)

 

 

 

 

 

 

A number of pictures, depicting this species and many other poppies, may be seen on the pages In praise of the colour red, and In praise of the colour yellow.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The common name alludes to the leaves, which may sometimes resemble a roedeer’s antlers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When the Europeans emigrated to North America, they somehow brought the seeds along, and the plant soon spread wherever the immigrants went, the seeds probably embedded in mud sticking to the horses’ hooves. This spreading was noticed by the indigenous peoples, who called it ‘white man’s footprint’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Old French name of the plant, armoires, became Latinized as armerios in 1537, later as Armeria. (Source: Corneliuson, J. 1997. Växternas namn. Vetenskapliga växtnamns etymologi. Språkligt ursprung och kulturell bakgrund. (‘Etymology of plant names’, in Swedish)

The specific name, from the Latin mare (’sea’), informs us that thrift is a seashore plant. However, following the introduction of salt-strewing on snow-covered roads in northern Europe, this species has spread inland, where it is now common along roads, even in cities.

In the old days, when sweets were not everyday treats like today, children would suck out nectar from flowers of thrift – or simply eat the entire inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stems erect, to 1 m tall, leaves erect or drooping, to 45 cm long and 1 cm wide. The inflorescence is a silvery-white spike, densely covered in bristles. Later, the spike turns yellow, and when the seeds ripen it turns brown.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek kegchros (‘millet-grass’), alluding to the resemblence of some of these plants to certain types of millet. The specific name means ‘resembles Alopecurus’, derived from Ancient Greek alopex (‘fox’), oura (‘tail’), and oides (‘resembling’), thus ‘like a foxtail’, alluding to the spike. Other common names include Chinese fountain grass and dwarf fountain grass.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is native to tropical America, but has become naturalized in most tropical and subtropical areas, easily spreading by its spiny fruits, which attach themselves to almost anything. It grows in many different habitats and is regarded as an agricultural weed in 35 countries.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Whatever its origin may be, it has been accidentally introduced to most warmer parts of the world and is regarded as an invasive in a number of countries, including Australia, Korea, Thailand, Cambodia, and India.

It is a common weed in sugarcane and rice fields, which is a serious problem, as it is a host of a number of rice insect pests, including white-backed planthoppers (Sogatella furcifera and Sogatodes pusanus), rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius), rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata), cereal thrips (Haplothrips ganglbaurei and Chirothrips mexicanus), and others.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where peacock-plume grass is extremely common, often covering large tracts of fallow land.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is cultivated as an ornamental plant, used for lawns and as groundcover.

 

 

 

 

 

The stem is unbranched, to 40 cm tall, spikes pale green or yellowish, spikelets in groups of 3, awn short, to 2 cm long, pointing outward at maturity.

The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’), alluding to the fact that this plant often grows along stone fences and house walls.

 

 

 

 

 

It is native from Mauritania and Sudan southwards to the Cape Province, and is also found in Madagascar and southern Arabia. However, it has been introduced as an ornamental, or unintentionally, to many other parts of the world. It has been declared an invasive plant in Mexico, United States, Australia, the Dominican Republic, and French Polynesia.

Natal grass is very common in Taiwan, often growing along roads or in abandoned plots. The pictures below are all from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The stems vary in height, from 20 cm to 1 m, erect or arching. Leaves are to 30 cm long and 6 mm wide, flat or with a keel. The inflorescence is a loose, spreading panicle, to 20 cm long, spikelets very small, to 3 mm long. It readily spreads by its large, branching rhizomes, which are pointed, giving rise to the name torpedograss. By Mississippi State University, it is referred to as “one of the world’s worst weeds. (…) When fully matured, torpedograss can grow up to 3 feet tall and form dense monotypic stands that out compete native species and lead to a loss of diversity and overall ecological health.”

The generic name is the classical Latin name of foxtail millet (Setaria italica, see caption Cereals below). The origin is uncertain, probably either from panis (‘bread’ or ‘loaf’), or from panus (‘an ear of millet’). The specific name is Latin, meaning either ‘creeping’ (which is a very bad name for this tall grass), or ‘unexpected’, ‘suddenly’, which may allude to it popping up everywhere.

Torpedograss is very common in Taiwan, also in cities. These pictures are all from Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This pioneer plant grows in open forests, shrubberies, and fallow lands, especially on nitrogen-rich soils. It is distributed in central and southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, eastwards to Afghanistan. Elsewhere, it is widely cultivated, often escaping to form naturalized growths. In New Zealand, it has been declared an unwanted organism. In the Alps and the Pyrenees, it may be encountered up to elevations around 1,300 m.

It contains the toxic protoanemonin, which may cause reddening and itching of the skin. In the past, beggars smeared juice of the leaves on the skin to cause ulcerations, which might arouse pity in people. In Tuscany, spring sprouts were formerly used in a certain kind of omelettes, called vitalbini, which was maybe not so wise due to its toxicity.

Baskets were produced from the tough stems. In the Alps, in former days, children would smoke dry stems as cigarettes.

The specific name is the Italian name of the plant. In England, the name traveller’s joy was given in allusion to the profusion of pleasant feathery seedheads of this plant in the dark months leading up to Christmas. The name old man’s beard also refers to the seedheads. An old German folk name was Teufelzwirn (‘devil’s twine’), referring to its toxicity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

At an early point, it was associated with Christianity due to its leaves growing in threes and its petals in fives – the threes reminiscent of the Holy Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the fives with the Five Sacred Wounds that Jesus suffered on the Cross (four from the nails in hands and feet, and one from the spear that penetrated his side).

In folklore, wood avens was credited with the power to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against rabid dogs and venomous snakes. The root, which contains eugenol, were used as a spice in soups and also to flavour ale.

 

 

 

 

 

 

In his delightful book All about Weeds, American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) has the following comment about this plant: “When one walks into some loose, trailing weeds, and they all seem glad to be torn from their roots in order to ride away clinging to his trousers, he has made contact with one of the many bedstraws (…) but if the stems cling to the clothing, the chances are that the find is one of two of them, Galium aparine or Galium asprillum. These are the two with the rough stems – the two that have this unique way of scattering their seeds. For of course those straws cling to the sheep’s wool and the dog’s hair just as they do to clothing, and sometimes they and their seeds are carried a long way by animals.”

Cleavers is also known by many other names, which allude to is hooked seeds and its scrambling habit, including catchweed, sticky bob, robin-run-the-hedge, and sticky willy.

This species is native to the major part of Europe, North Africa, and Temperate Asia, eastwards to Japan. It may also be indigenous in North America, and has become naturalized in Mexico, Central America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The whole plant emits a foetid aroma when rubbed, giving rise to a number of popular names, including chicken dung vine, stinky vine, and dog fart vine. It is widely utilized in folk medicine for a number of ailments, including fever, aches, jaundice, dysentery, and dyspepsia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical Africa and Asia, and has also become naturalized in many other parts of the world. In New Zealand, where it is considered a pest, trading of its seeds is prohibited.

The medical usage of balloon vine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

Balloon vine is ubiquitous in Taiwan, climbing on other plants or on fences. The pictures below are all from the city of Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A close relative, the black henbane (H. niger), is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

Anchored off the coast of what is today called Cuba, in November 1492, Cristoforo Colombo (1451-1506), in English known as Christopher Columbus, wrote in his journal, that his messengers had seen natives carrying “some sort of cylinder, in which sweetly smelling herbs were glowing. These, they supposed, were dried herb stalks, covered by an equally dry but broader leaf. The people sucked the opposite end of the cylinder and, as it were, drank the smoke. Although this apparently intoxicated them, it also seemed to protect them from fatigue. The natives called these cylinders tabacos.”

 

The specific name refers to the leaves, which resemble those of some species in the genus Plumbago.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This genus is dealt with in detail on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is widely cultivated elsewhere and has become naturalized in numerous places, including in the eastern United States, where it is regarded as highly invasive, establishing itself along streams and ponds, at forest edges, and in other disturbed areas. The colourful berries are eaten by birds and small mammals, dispersing the seeds in their droppings.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Shaggy ink-cap is rather common in nutritious places, including fertilized grass fields and lawns, around farms, along roads, etc. It is present from summer to late autumn, often in large congregations. When young, it is edible and quite tasty.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

They are double organisms, consisting of a fungus and an alga or a cyanobacterium, living in a mutual symbiotic relationship. The alga or the cyanobacterium is attached to the thread-like mycelium of the fungus, which is again attached to the soil, or to stones or trees. Thus, the alga or cyanobacterium is protected from most enemies, and in return it provides the fungus with essential carbohydrates that the fungus cannot produce. The mycelium, however, is able to obtain certain nutrients from the soil or from the air, which benefit the alga or cyanobacterium.