Kaj Halberg - writer & photographer
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Railway flora
Jiancing Historic Trail was established along remains of this old railroad track. Besides the tracks themselves, you may study skids, switches, trolley axles, and deserted workers’ dwellings.
Jiancing means ‘seeing the sun’. The name was possibly given due to the fact that this area is often enveloped in fog, and finally seeing the sun breaking through the fog might be relieving.
In his delightful book All about Weeds, Dover Publications (1974), American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) says about a species of pigweed, A. retroflexus:“One of the most robust, devil-may-care weeds is the pigweed. ‘Careless weed’ is another of its common names, and it comes by this name honestly enough. In good rich soil, it cares for nothing. Wind, hail, fair weather and foul are all the same to the pigweed. Nor does it care what plants are its competitors. It can usually shoulder our any plant within reach, and it has a considerable reach. The name pigweed, however, has no reference to the piggish nature of the plant. It refers to the gustatory pleasure the weed affords pigs. Hogs will leave their corn to feast on pigweeds. In spite of its bristly appearance (it always reminds one of a boisterous young sailor with a week’s growth of sandy beard on his face and his cap on the side of his head), the leaves are tender, and if the smacking of lips and satisfied grunts mean the same thing to pigs that they do to Man, the weeds must be delicious.”
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek a (‘not’, ‘without’) and maraino (‘to wither’), given in reference to the flowers, which last a very long time.
Leaves, as well as seeds, are eaten in many parts of the world. In Australia, this plant was also a source of food during the 19th Century. In 1889, botanist Joseph Maiden (1859-1925) wrote: “It is an excellent substitute for spinach, being far superior to much of the leaves of the white beet sold for spinach in Sydney. Next to spinach it seems to be most like boiled nettle leaves, which when young are used in England, and are excellent. This amarantus should be cooked like spinach, and as it becomes more widely known, it is sure to be popular, except amongst persons who may consider it beneath their dignity to have anything to do with so common a weed.” (Source: T. Low, 1985. Wild Herbs of Australia & New Zealand. Angus & Robertson)
In India, slender amaranth is utilized in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘green’.
The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘rod’ or ‘staff’. In Ancient Greek mythology, Prometheus, the god of fire, presented fire to humans by hiding it in the hollow stem of giant fennel. The stem, entwined with foliage of ivy (Hedera helix), was also used as a thyrsus – a staff associated with the wine god Dionysus.
It is one of the plants, which in Ancient Greece and Rome were utilized for production of a resin, known as silphium, silphion, or laser, used in perfume and medicine, and also as an aphrodisiac and a contraceptive. It was an essential trade item from the ancient North African city of Cyrene, and it was so important to the Cyrenian economy that most of their coins bore a picture of the plant. The gum is still produced in Morocco today.
It comes in two types, one poisonous to livestock, and one non-toxic. Young stems and inflorescences of the non-toxic type are edible. They were a food item in Ancient Rome, and are still eaten in Morocco.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
Pictures, depicting flowering specimens of this impressive plant, are shown on the page In praise of the colour yellow.
The fruit of one member, the Sodom apple (Calotropis procera), was first described by Roman historian Titus Flavius Josephus, born Yosef ben Matityahu (c. 37-100 A.D.), who found it growing near the city of Sodom: “which fruits have a colour as if they were fit to be eaten, but if you pluck them with your hands, they dissolve into smoke and ashes.” (W. Whiston, 1737. The War of the Jews, Book IV, Chapter 8, Sec. 4). Titus is referring to the fact that the ripe fruit easily dissolves, releasing hundreds of downy seeds, which are scattered to the four winds.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kalos (‘beautiful’) and tropis (‘keel of a ship’), referring to the beauty of the flowers, and to the 5 keel-shaped ridges in the corona.
It is distributed from the Indian Subcontinent eastwards to southern China, and thence southwards to Indonesia, growing in disturbed habitats, including roadsides, fallow fields, and beaches.
The plant is widely used in traditional and ayurvedic medicine, described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry. The flowers are sometimes used as decoration. It is told that Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani (1838-1917) wore them as a symbol of royalty, strung into leis (garlands).
The genus is named for Artemis, the Greek goddess of wilderness and wild animals, hunting, childbirth and virginity, protector of young girls, and also bringer and reliever of disease in women. In his Herbarium, Roman philosopher and scholar Lucius Apuleius (c. 124-170 A.D.) writes: “Of these worts that we name Artemisia, it is said that Diana found them and delivered their powers and leechdom to Chiron the Centaur, who first from these worts set forth a leechdom, and he named these worts from the Greek name of Diana, Artemis.”
The role of Artemisia species in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.
In China, this species is sometimes used as a substitute for A. argyii to make moxa, which is much utilized as a healer in traditional Chinese medicine.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
These plants were already regarded as being different from the present-day members of the genus Carduus by Swiss botanist Gaspard Bauhin (1560-1624). He may have noticed that their pappus (seed hairs) form a plume, as opposed to members of Carduus, which have simple, unbranched seed hairs.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kirsion, according to Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.) the name of a kind of thistle, derived from kirsos (‘swollen vein’), alluding to its usage against swollen veins.
A number of species in this genus are described on the page Plants: Thistles.
It may be separated from other thistles by the rather small purplish, violet, or pink (rarely white) flowerheads, to 2 cm across. Flowering takes place between March and August.
In Nepal, a paste of the root is used for indigestion.
This species is a most troublesome weed in most cooler parts of the world. As far back as 1863, Danish research showed that a large creeping thistle can produce about 80 flowerheads in one season, and as flowerheads on average contain 120 flowers, one single plant is able to produce about 10,000 seeds per year! Its invasiveness is described on the page Nature: Invasive species.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in fields’.
Spear thistle is biennial. During the first year, it produces a leaf rosette, which overwinters and grows into a stem, up to 1.5 m tall, the following summer, displaying an abundance of beautiful red flowerheads. Despite its formidable armour of spines, this plant has been elected as the national flower of Scotland, hence another common name, Scottish thistle. Other lovers of the spear thistle include honey bees, bumble bees, and butterflies, which feed on the nectar, and various finches, including goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), linnet (Linaria cannabina), and greenfinch (Chloris chloris), which greatly appreciate the seeds.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
Several pictures, depicting this species, are shown on the page Plants: Flora in Turkey.
According to one source, the generic name is derived from Ancient Greek cotyle (‘cavity’, ‘bowl’, or ‘cup’), alluding to the sessile leaves of some members of the genus forming a cavity at the base.
Its native area is from England and Norway eastwards to eastern Siberia, southwards to the Mediterranean, Jordan, Iran, and Central Asia, growing on meagre soils, such as sandy fields and waste plots.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘used in dyeing’, derived from tingo (‘soak in dye’).
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek krepis (‘slipper’ or ‘sandal’), according to some authorities referring to the shape of the fruit.
The specific name is derived from the Latin capillus (‘hair’ or ‘thread’), perhaps referring to the slender stem.
These plants are very similar to some members of the well-known genus Aster, but ray florets are usually in 2 or several rows, and very narrow, as opposed to one row of broader florets in Aster.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek eri (‘early in the morning’) and geron (‘old man’), alluding to some species, which are covered with down when young. Some members of the genus contain an oil with a turpentine-like smell, which, supposedly, should deter fleas, hence the common name.
It prefers to grow in undisturbed areas and is particularly troublesome in newly established plantations, where it is able to resist herbicides, growing to 3 m tall, thus depriving planted species of nutrients and sunlight.
It contains an oil with a turpentine-like smell, which, supposedly, should deter fleas, hence its common name. Another popular name is bloodstanch, given by herbalists, who claim that an extract from leaves and flowers arrests haemorrhages from the lungs and alimentary tract.
The generic name, previously written Hypochoeris, is probably derived from Ancient Greek hypo (‘under’) and choeris (‘young pig’), alluding to the fact that pigs enjoy eating the root of common cat’s-ear (below). The English name refers to the leaves of this species, which are covered in rough hairs.
It is a perennial herb, the forked stem sometimes growing as tall as 80 cm. The basal leaves, which form a rosette, are obovate in outline, to 20 cm long and 4 cm wide, margin wavy or lobed, sometimes pinnately divided, hairy, stem leaves absent or few, similar to the basal leaves. The terminal flowerheads are bright yellow, to 1.5 cm across.
A close relative, large cat’s-ear (H. uniflora) is described on the page Plants: Flora in the Alps and the Pyrenees.
The generic name refers to Jacobus, in English called James the Great, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is the patron saint of Spain and, according to tradition, his remains are housed in the city of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, known as the culmination of the Camino de Santiago pilgrimage route.
The name ragwort was given in allusion to the ragged foliage of many of these plants.
Several members are described on the page Plants: Groundsels, ragworts, and allies.
The stem is erect, green or reddish, usually smooth, much branched, sometimes reaching a height of 2 m, but usually lower. The leaves, to 20 cm long and 6 cm wide, are pinnately lobed, the lobes toothed along the margin. The very numerous flowerheads, to 2.5 cm across, have 10-15 yellow, strap-shaped ray florets and many orange disc florets. The flowers are much visited by bees, hover flies, and butterflies.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
The name tansy ragwort refers to the foliage, which somewhat resembles that of tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, see below). Popular names also include stinking willie and mare’s fart, alluding to the unpleasant smell of the leaves.
The generic name was the classical Latin name of the garden lettuce (L. sativa), derived from lactis (‘milk’), alluding to the milky sap of this plant. The English name is a corruption of the Latin word.
The main habitat of this plant is woodlands, but it may also be found in open areas, including forest clearings, city walls, stone fences, and along railroads. The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’).
It is native to Europe, North Africa, and temperate areas of Asia, and has also become naturalized elsewhere, growing along beaches, roads, and railroads, and as a field weed.
One folk name of prickly lettuce is compass plant. The leaves of its main stem are aligned north-south, offering the least surface area to the midday sun, but the maximum area to the weaker light early and late in the day.
Incidentally, this plant was named twice by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), in 1756 as L. serriola, and in 1763 as L. scariola, derived from the Latin escarius (‘edible’). The first name is probably a misspelling, which Linnaeus then corrected in 1763. However, according to the nomenclature rules, the first published name has priority.
The name scariola was used by Englishmen at least as far back as the 1400s. According to the Oxford Dictionary, one source said: “Wylde letus hat feldman clepyn Skariole.” (“Wild lettuce have field-men (farmers) called Skariole”).
It grows in forests, hedges, along roads and railroads, and in fallow fields. The young leaves are edible, cooked like spinach or eaten raw in salads.
The common name stems from the 17th century, when the word nipple was regarded as being equivalent to the word papillaris, derived from the Latin papilla (‘nipple’). In Germany, followers of the Doctrine of Signatures maintained that the plant could be used to treat cracked nipples, as its flowerheads, when young, resemble nipples.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
The generic name is derived from the Latin matricis (’mother’s life’, i.e. the womb). Formerly another plant, feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), was regarded as a species of chamomile, named Matricaria parthenium by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). In Ancient Rome, feverfew was used for uterus problems.
The specific name is derived from the Latin discoides (‘disc-shaped’), referring to the flowerheads.
The generic name is derived from the Latin senex (‘old man’), alluding to the white seed hairs of the genus.
The name ragwort was given in allusion to the ragged foliage of many of these plants.
Several members are described on the page Plants: Groundsels, ragworts, and allies.
Its habitats include roadsides, fields, waste places, inner parts of beaches, and other open, disturbed areas.
Originally, it was a native of south-eastern Europe and western Asia, but was accidentally introduced to other parts of Europe in the 1700s, presumably with imported crops. Today, it is extremely common, especially on poor soils, and is regarded as a severe pest in grass, clover, and alfalfa fields.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘of the spring’, derived from ver (‘spring’).
It is very similar to the common woodland ragwort (S. sylvaticus), which, however, does not have sticky glandular hairs. Sticky ragwort also has longer ray florets, which are initially spreading, later recurved.
Originally, sticky ragwort was a native of southern and central Europe and western Asia. Since the 1800s, it has spread considerably and has become naturalized in northern Europe, Canada, United States, and elsewhere.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sticky’, derived from viscum, the classical word for a birdlime, made from berries of the common mistletoe (Viscum album).
The generic name is a Latinized form of sonkhos, the ancient Greek word for sow-thistles. The common name refers to the fact that pigs like to eat these plants, and to the leaves, which resemble young thistle leaves.
A number of species are described on the page Plants: Urban plant life.
This species presumably originates from the Mediterranean region, but has become naturalized in most parts of the world. In Nepal, a paste of the plant is applied to wounds and boils. It is also collected for fodder, and tender parts are cooked as a vegetable.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘rough’ or ‘coarse’, naturally alluding to the leaves.
It is probably native to Europe and western Asia, but has been spread to most other areas of the world, growing in waste places, fallow fields, along roads, and in cities. It is regarded as an invasive plant in many countries, including Australia, where it is a serious problem in crops.
The specific name is derived from the Latin oleris, meaning ‘edible’. Young leaves can be eaten as salad or cooked like spinach. The plant is also used medicinally.
Disc florets are yellow, whereas ray florets are missing in most species. When present, they are mostly white.
The common name was adapted from Old French tanesie, which came from the Latin tanacetum, which was again adapted from Ancient Greek athanatos (‘immortal’), according to some old times herbalists referring to the conserving properties of common tansy (below), which is toxic to various pests, blocking their attack.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
Other pictures, depicting this species, are shown on the page In praise of the colour yellow.
These plants are characterized by stem and leaves having a milky sap. The long and narrow leaves are in a rosette, 10-20 cm across, blade usually lobed or serrated, but sometimes almost entire, wavy. The single flowerhead, 2-6 cm across, is borne on a leafless, hollow stem, 10-20 cm tall, sometimes more. Florets yellow, very numerous, densely crowded. Flowering takes place most of the year.
Dandelion was first mentioned as a medicinal herb by Arabian physicians in the 10th or 11th Century, who called it a sort of wild endive (Cichorium), under the name of tharakhchakon, which was corrupted to Taraxacum. In French, these plants were named dent de lion (‘lion’s tooth’), alluding to the often strongly serrated leaves. This name was adopted by the English, corrupted to dandelion.
Flowering takes place early in spring, from February to April, long before the leaves develop. The flowering stems, to 10 cm tall, elongated in fruit, are covered in whitish down, with scaly, purplish bracts. Flowerheads are solitary, terminal, to 3 cm across, nodding before and after flowering. The involucre is bell-shaped, covered in white down, to 1.8 cm long at fruiting. The bright yellow ray florets are very numerous, narrow, to 1 cm long, disc florets orange-yellow.
The leaves, all basal, appear after the flowers have withered. They are long-stalked, green above, white-woolly below, very broadly heart-shaped, almost circular in outline, to 14 cm across, margin wavy, with many or few teeth.
Leaves and young flowerheads are used medicinally for cough. In China, the plant is also cultivated as a honey plant.
The generic name, derived from the Latin tussis (’to cough’), refers to the usage of the leaves. The specific name is derived from farfarum, the classical Latin name of the plant. The common name was given in allusion to the shape of the leaves. An old name for the plant was Filius ante patrem (‘the son before the father’), referring to the fact that the flowers appear long before the leaves.
The generic name, as well as the popular name touch-me-not, were given in allusion to the way these plants spread their seeds. As the fruit reaches maturity, a tension builds up inside the pod, causing it to ‘explode’ when touched, hereby spreading the seeds a considerable distance.
The common name balsam is in fact a misnomer. It was adopted from the garden balsam (Impatiens balsamina), which was brought to Europe by the Portuguese in the 16th Century. Originally, balsamine was a Greek name of an unidentified plant with an aromatic oil, derived from balsamon (‘balsam’), which in the Hebrew means ‘spice’ or ‘perfume’.
When cooked, the leaves are edible, and the seeds can be consumed raw or cooked. Medicinally, it has been used for treatment of warts, ringworm, and nettle stings, and also to relieve an itchy scalp.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with small flowers’.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek myos (’mouse’) and otis, which is the nominative plural of ous (’ear’), thus ‘mouse-ears’, alluding to the shape and hairiness of the leaves.
The origin of the name forget-me-not, and the role of these plants in folklore, is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.
It is native to temperate areas of Eurasia, from Iceland eastwards to eastern Siberia, southwards to northern Africa, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. It has become naturalized in many other places, including New Zealand and North America, where it sometimes becomes invasive.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in fields’.
The generic name is derived from Allium, the genus name of onions and garlic, referring to the garlic-like smell of crushed leaves of these plants.
Around 1860, it was introduced to the United States as a spice herb, and since then it has spread to most states, and to Canada as well. It has invaded numerous forests, where it is able to dominate the understorey, expelling native plants. During the last 50 years, it has also been spreading considerably in its native area, presumably benefitted by the increased nitrogen deposition.
It is biennial, in the first year forming a leaf rosette at ground level. It remains green through the winter, developing a stem the following spring, to 1 m tall, occasionally to 1.3 m. Leaves are stalked, broadly triangular or heart-shaped, blade to 8 cm long and across, margin toothed. Inflorescences are small, long-stalked clusters of white flowers from the leaf axils, petals to 8 mm long and 3 mm wide.
The specific name is Latin, means ‘having petioles’, i.e. leaf-stalks.
The generic name is composed of the genus name Arabis, also in Brassicaceae, and Ancient Greek opsis (‘appearance’ or ‘resemblance’), thus ‘resembling Arabis‘.
Stem erect, to 30 cm long, often branched from the base, lower part hairy. Basal leaves form a rosette, blade obovate or oblanceolate, pinnately divided, with 3-11 lobes on each side, to 5 cm long and 1 cm wide, stem leaves smaller, usually entire. Flowers to 1 cm across, petals white or lavender.
The specific name is derived from the Latin harena (‘sand’), earlier hasena, possibly from Etruscan, and the suffix osus (‘full of’). Thus an approximate meaning is ‘abundant in sand’.
The generic name is adapted from a medieval name of the plant, Herba Sanctae Barbarae (’Saint Barbara’s wort’). Holy Barbara was regarded as the patron saint of artillery men and miners, and as wintercress was considered a good healer of wounds, it was named after her.
According to legend, Barbara was the daughter of a rich pagan, living in the 3rd Century. Her father kept her locked up in a tower in order to protect her from the influence of the outside world. However, she secretly became a Christian and rejected to marry the man her father presented to her.
Before going on a journey, her father ordered a private bath-house to be constructed for her near her dwelling, but during his absence, Barbara had three windows put in it, as a symbol of the Holy Trinity, instead of the two originally intended. When her father returned, she informed him that she had become a Christian. He dragged her before the prefect of the province, but, despite being cruelly tortured, she held true to her Christian faith.
At night, her prison was bathed in light, and every morning her wounds were healed. Torches that were held near her to burn her were extinguished. Finally, she was beheaded, and her father himself carried out the death sentence. As punishment, he was struck by lightning and his body consumed by flame.
Barbara was buried by a Christian, and her tomb became the site of miracles. In his book Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern (Gloyer und Oldshausen, Hamburg, 1837, in English Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, Performed by M. Niebuhr, Gale Ecco, 2018), German cartographer and mathematician Carsten Niebuhr relates that he was shown her grave in the church of the village Karmelis, near Mosul, northern Iraq, in 1766. Some nearby ruins were said to have been her father’s palace.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.
The generic name and the popular name, as well as the name of the entire family, were applied in allusion to the bell-shaped flowers of this genus, from the Latin campanula (’little bell’), the ‘bell’ consisting of five fused petals with free tips. This name was first used in 1542 by German physician and botanist Leonhart Fuchs (1501-1566).
Its habitats include open forests, shrubberies, fields, gardens, and along roads, railways, and hedgerows, preferably in partial shade. It spreads by underground rhizomes, often forming dense stands. Even a small piece of rhizome can spout into a new plant, making it very hard to eradicate, once it has entered a garden.
It is found in all of Europe, except Iceland and the British Isles, southwards to the Mediterranean, Turkey, and Iran, eastwards to central Siberia and Central Asia. It has also been introduced to North America, where it has become an extremely invasive weed.
The specific name refers to the similarity of this plant to C. rapunculus, whose specific name is a diminutive of the Latin rapa (‘turnip’), thus ‘little turnip’, referring to the shape of the root. C. rapunculus is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.
Other bellflower species are presented on the pages Plants: Flora of the Alps and the Pyrenees, and In praise of the colour blue.
Previously, these plants were placed in the family Valerianaceae, which has now been reduced to a subfamily, Valerianoideae, of the honeysuckle family.
The generic name is derived from the Latin valere (‘to be strong, healthy’), alluding to the medicinal properties of many valerian species.
It forms a basic leaf rosette, blade spatulate, to 5 cm long, stem leaves smaller, to 2 cm long, stems several, branching out from the rosette, to 35 cm long. Inflorescences are small, branched clusters from the leaf axils, corolla bluish-white, with 5 fused petals, to 2 mm long and wide.
In a botanical context, the specific name means a ‘spikelet in a flower cluster’. What it refers to in this case is not clear.
It grows in a variety of habitats, including dry, sandy or rocky places, and on walls, from sea level up to altitudes around 1,000 m. It is native from western Europe and Morocco eastwards to Turkey, but has been introduced to many other places as a garden plant. It has escaped and become naturalized in many countries, including the British Isles, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, and is regarded as invasive in the latter two countries.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’, alluding to the flower colour.
The capsule of these plants has 6 teeth.
The generic name is derived from the Latin harena (‘sand’), earlier hasena, possibly from Etruscan. The name refers to the fact that many members of the genus often grow in sandy areas, which is also reflected in the English name.
It is distributed in a vast area, from all of Europe (except Iceland) eastwards to the Ural Mountains, and from northern and eastern Africa across Arabia, Central Asia, and the Himalaya to Japan and Taiwan. It has also become widely naturalized in North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand.
It grows in sandy and stony places, as a weed in fields and gardens, on walls, and along roads. In Central Asia, it has been recorded up to elevations around 4,000 m.
In Asia, it is used medicinally.
The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek herpyllos, the word for a species of thyme (Thymus), which in Old Latin was corrupted to serpyllum, and the Latin folium (‘leaf’), thus ‘with leaves like thyme’.
The calyx has 10 teeth in most species.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek keras (‘horn’), alluding to the horn-shaped capsules, which protrude from the calyx.
It is distributed from Greenland, Iceland, and Scandinavia southwards to Morocco, eastwards to Finland and the Balkans. It has also been introduced to the Himalaya, Japan, and almost the entire North America.
It grows in open areas, including roadsides, trails, slopes, forest margins, and grasslands, and is also a weed in gardens and fields. In Central Asia, it has been recorded up to elevations around 4,300 m.
The specific name is derived from the Latin fons (‘spring’), indicating that the plant is fond of damp areas.
The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘feasting’, alluding to members of the genus Spergula (spurreys), which were once included in Sagina. Members of Spergula were utilized as vegetables.
The common name refers to the small, white, rounded flowers.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘creeping’ or ‘lying flat on the ground’.
The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘resembling Spergula’ (spurreys).
It is common in open places like fields and along roads, and it may sometimes be encountered in cities.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’, presumably referring to the flower colour.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kalyx (‘cup’) and stegos (‘covering’), thus ‘a covering cup’, referring to the shape of the calyx.
Formerly, these plants were included in the genus Convolvulus (below), which they closely resemble, only differing in minute botanical characters.
The stem is twining in a counter-clockwise direction, reaching a length of up to 3 m. The leaves are alternate, dull green above, paler below, arrow-shaped, simple, to 10 cm long and 7 cm wide, flowers trumpet-shaped, to 7 cm long, white in most subspecies, although an American subspecies, americana, has a white and pink corolla, much like the cultivated hairy bindweed (C. pulchra). It is distributed across southern Canada and the eastern half of the United States, replaced by other subspecies further west.
Due to its vigorous growth, hedge bindweed is regarded as a pest in many places.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in hedges’, alluding to this plant being common in hedges.
The generic name is derived from the Latin convolvere (‘to wind’ or ‘to wrap’ (around)), ultimately from con (‘with’) and volvo (‘to roll’).
It is native to temperate and subtropical areas of the Old World, from Ireland eastwards to eastern Siberia, and from Scandinavia and Siberia southwards to northern Africa, India, and northern Indochina. It has been accidentally introduced to many other parts of the world, where it easily becomes naturalized, and has become invasive in many places. This issue is described on the page Nature: Invasive species.
In America, where this plant is mainly known as Creeping Jenny, many of its popular names allude to its invasive nature. Edwin Spencer (see above) says: “Creeping Jenny is one of the meanest of weeds. That name aptly describes it. A whispering little hussy that creeps in and spoils everything. The weed needs no other name than this, but it has several others (…) hedge bells, corn-lily, withwind, bellbine, lap-love, sheep-bine, corn-bind, bear-bind, and green vine.”
The specific name is derived from the Latin arvus (‘cultivated’), thus ‘growing in cultivated fields’.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek drys (‘oak’) and pteris (‘fern’), originally the classical Greek name of the black spleenwort (Asplenium adiantum-nigrum).
Greek scholar Theophrastos (c. 371-287 B.C.) and Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.), who was the author of De Materia Medica, five volumes dealing with herbal medicine, both maintained that the rhizome of common male fern would expel intestinal worms. English herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) writes: “The roots of the male fern, being taken in the weight of half an ounce, driveth forth long flat worms, as Dioscorides writeth, being drunke in mede or honied water, and more effectually if it be given with two scruples, or two third parts of a dram of scammonie, or of black hellebore: they that will use it, must first eat garlicke.”
In 1855, Swiss apothecary M. Peschier states that by digesting buds of common male fern in sulphuric ether, and using this tincture against tapeworms, they were killed with constant success. (Source: M. Peschier 1855. Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, XXX, p. 205)
The pounded rhizome has the same effect. Due to the great toxicity of this drug, it is only used nowadays, when alternative drugs are inadequate. A decoction of the rhizome has also been used to treat certain fungal infections.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek anthyllio, diminutive of anthos (‘flower’).
This perennial, with ascending or upright stems, varies from dwarf plants 5 cm tall to shrubby herbs that may reach a height of 40 cm. Basal leaves often have only a terminal elliptic leaflet, to 8 cm long, lateral leaflets 1-4 pairs, much reduced in size, or often missing. Stem leaves have 2-7 pairs of leaflets, ovate, elliptic, or lanceolate, lateral ones to 2.5 cm long and 8 mm wide, terminal leaflet to 6 cm long and 2 cm wide, rounded.
The inflorescence is a compact flowerhead with numerous flowers, to 1.9 cm long, golden-yellow in most subspecies, occasionally whitish, orange, or red. The white-haired calyx is inflated, with uneven teeth. The pod is ovoid, hairy, dark, one-seeded.
This plant is distributed in the entire Europe, eastwards to the Ural Mountains, southwards to northern Africa and Iran, with an isolated occurrence in Ethiopian mountains, growing in dry grasslands and coastal dunes, along roads and embankments, and in other disturbed areas, preferably on calcareous soils, from the lowland up to alpine regions.
The specific name is derived from the Latin vulnus (‘wound’), alluding to the former usage of the plant for healing wounds. It was also used for cough.
The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek lathyros, the classical name of the chickling pea (L. sativus).
On the Greek island Santorini, the plant has been cultivated for more than 3,500 years. The seeds are used to prepare a special dish, called fava santorinis.
The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek klymenos (‘renowned’).
The leaves are trifoliate.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek meli (‘honey’) and lotus (see Lotus above). These plants are much visited by bees. The common name sweet clover refers to the fragrance of the flowers. They are also widely cultivated as nitrogen-producers.
Today, white melilot is not cultivated on a larger scale. Nevertheless, it has become widely naturalized in most temperate and subtropical areas of the world, especially in abandoned lots and along newly established roads.
The specific name is Latin, mening ‘white’.
The pod is small, containing a single seed.
The generic name was the classical Latin word for clover, meaning ‘with 3 leaves’, referring to the trifoliate leaves of the genus.
It is native from the British Isles eastwards to the Ural Mountains, and from northern Europe southwards to northern and eastern Africa, Arabia, Iran, and Afghanistan, growing in grasslands, fields, forest edges, wastelands, and along roads.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in fields’.
The generic name is the classical Latin word for vetch.
The inflorescence is a raceme with up to 30 flowers, usually 10-15 cm long, but sometimes to 30 cm, densely hairy. Corolla to 1.8 cm long, blue or purple, rarely white, but keel often white, standard to 1.5 cm long, keel a bit shorter. Flowering occurs June-September.
A widely distributed species, found in the major part of Europe and northern Asia, eastwards to central Siberia, southwards to Morocco, Jordan, the Himalaya, northern China, and Japan, growing at forest edges and in open areas.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with thin leaves’.
Stipules (leaf-like appendices at the base of leaves) are often distinct on these plants. After flowering, the style forms a long, straight or up-curved beak, which separates into 5 elastic spring-like coils, each containing a single seed that is expelled, usually when the style is touched.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek geranos (‘crane’), alluding to the fruit, whose shape resembles a crane’s bill.
In German, these plants are called Storchschnabel (‘stork’s-bill’). In 1542, German physician and botanist Leonhart Fuchs (1501-1566) writes in his great herbal De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes (‘Notable Commentaries on the History of Plants’): “Storckenschnäbel seind von den Griechen unnd Lateinischen genemt worden Gerania, darumb das sie am obersten teyl des stengels bringen ein köpfflin mit langen schnäbelin, nit anderst dann die Krench oder Storcken. Unnd daher kompt es, das zu unsern zeiten würdt Rostrum ciconiae geheyssen, das ist Storckenschnabel.” (‘By the Greeks and the Latinos, stork’s-bill is called Gerania, because at the top of the stem they bring forth a small head with long bills, no different from the bill of cranes or storks. And therefore, in our time, they are called Rostrum ciconiae, i.e. stork’s-bill.’)
In English, the name stork’s-bill refers to members of the genus Erodium, likewise of the crane’s-bill family.
This plant grows in a variety of habitats, including open forests, meadows, grazing grounds, and wastelands. It is native to mountains of central and southern Europe and North Africa, eastwards to Ukraine, the Caucasus, and northern Iran.
It is widely cultivated and has become naturalized in numerous countries, northwards to Scandinavia, Finland, and European Russia, and also in north-eastern North America and Australia.
In former days, this species was known as Saint Robert’s herb, like the specific name referring to French abbot and herbalist Robert de Molesme (c. 1028-1111), one of the founders of the Cistercian Order. He used it to cure people, suffering from various diseases, including diarrhea, liver and gall bladder problems, toothache, and wounds. American native tribes also utilized it medicinally.
In his booklet Chrut und Uchrut (in English called Weeds – a useful booklet on medicinal herbs), from 1911, Swiss priest and herbalist Johann Künzle (1857-1945) states the following: “The application of Herb Robin is also very effective against abscesses and inflammations of cattle. Glory be to God.”
The generic name is the classical Latin word for mallow, adapted from the classical Greek word for the same plants, malakhe, originally from Hebrew malluah, a plant used as salad. The common name is a corruption of Old English mealwe, an adaptation of the Latin name. The word for the colour mauve was adapted from the French name of these plants.
It grows in open areas, including fallow fields, along hedges, and on the inner part of beaches. Stem to 1 m long, erect or ascending, leaves roundish, toothed, with 5-7 lobes, flowers in axillary clusters, petals pale violet or bright pinkish-purple with darker veins.
Several places around the Mediterranean, the leaves are steamed with garlic and tomatoes, eaten as an appetizer or a salad. In Egypt, the leaves are made into a stew-like vegetable dish, known as khobeiza. The leaves were also eaten as a vegetable in Europe in the 19th Century. The flowers were spread on doorways and woven into garlands for celebrating May Day.
In traditional medicine, the seeds were taken internally in tea to relieve irritation or inflammation of the mucous membranes, and the leaves were used in a poultices to soften the skin. A yellow dye can be obtained from the plant.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in forests’ – not an appropriate name, as it grows in open areas.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek elaia, the classical name of the olive tree (below). It is the origin of the word ‘oil’.
Its usage is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.
There is much controversy as to the name of this genus. Initially, Chamaenerion may have originated as early as 1561. It is derived from Ancient Greek khamai (‘near the ground’) and nerion, the Ancient Greek name of the oleander (Nerium oleander), alluding to the oleander-like leaves of rosebay willow-herb (below). In 1753, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) placed these plants in the genus Epilobium (below). However, many botanists disregarded his decision, preferring Chamaenerion.
In 1818, French naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (1783-1840) proposed the name Chamerion, suggesting it as either a subgenus or genus. Rafinesque had his own peculiar rules of botanical nomenclature, regarding it as appropriate to shorten existing generic names. His new name, however, was not widely accepted until published in 1972 by Czech botanist Josef Ludwig Holub (1930-1999), who designated a different type species, Epilobium amenum. However, as this species is now included in C. angustifolium, Chamaenerion has precedence over Chamerion. Some authorities still include these plants in Epilobium. (Source: A.N. Sennikov 2011. Chamerion or Chamaenerion (Onagraceae)? The old story in new words, Taxon 60 (5): 1485-1488)
The common name alludes to the similarity of the leaves of rosebay willow-herb to those of certain species of willow (Salix).
This gregarious herb often forms large growths, especially in open disturbed habitats, such as forest clearings and abandoned fields. An example of the latter is described on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.
It is very widely distributed in northern temperate and subarctic areas, southwards to Morocco, Pakistan, northern Indochina, Korea, and northern United States. In the Alps and the Pyrenees it grows up to elevations around 2,500 m, in the Himalaya up to about 4,700 m.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘narrow-leaved’. The name fireweed refers to the ability of this species to rapidly colonize areas, burned by fire. Incidentally, it was one of the first plants to appear when the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, Washington State, had devastated a huge area in 1980.
The generic name was used as early as 1561 for E. angustifolium (today Chamaenerion angustifolium, above) by Swiss physician and naturalist Conrad Gessner (1516-1565) in his unfinished work Historia plantarum. He composed the name from Ancient Greek ion epi lobion (‘violet on a pod’), lobion literally meaning ‘fruit of the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), alluding to the similarity of the flower colour to that of certain violets (Viola), and to its pod-like fruit.
The common name refers to the similarity of the leaves of some species to those of certain species of willow (Salix).
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’ or ‘fringed’, referring to the fine hairs on stems, leaves, and seed pods.
It is distributed in temperate regions, from Europe eastwards across Asia to China and Japan, and also in Arabia and large parts of Africa.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’, alluding to the dense layer of hairs on the stem.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘found in mountains’ – an odd name, as it is also common in the lowlands.
These plants vary greatly in size, from dwarves 10 cm high to giants 3 m tall. Most species have yellow flowers, some white, purple, pink, or red. Despite their name, they are not closely related to the true primroses (Primula).
The meaning of the generic name is uncertain.
It is a native of Brazil, but is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant, often becoming naturalized.
The specific name honours French botanist and landscape designer Auguste François Marie Glaziou (1828-1906). In 1858, Emperor Dom Pedro of Brazil (1825-1891), whose real name was no less than Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga, requested Glaziou to become director of parks and gardens in Rio de Janeiro. While in Brazil, Glaziou also collected numerous plants.
The generic name is the classical Latin term for poppies.
The specific name derived from Ancient Greek argemos, meaning ‘a white spot on the eye’ (cataract). According to the Ancient Greeks, a species of Argemone, likewise in the poppy family, was able to cure cataract. Why the name was applied to prickly-headed poppy is not clear.
It is quite variable, growing to about 60 cm tall, stem with stiff bristles, basal leaves forming a rosette, stalked, hairy, to 15 cm long and 3 cm wide, pinnately lobed, each lobe with a fine spine at the end, stem leaves alternate, smaller, sessile. The showy flowers, sometimes to 7 cm across, have 4 orange-red petals. The similar corn poppy (P. rhoeas) has darker red petals, usually with a black spot at the base, which lacks in the long-headed poppy.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘in doubt’. Perhaps Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78) was in doubt, when he named the plant in 1753, whether it was the same species as the corn poppy.
The generic name is derived from the Latin linum (‘linen’ or ‘flax’), thus ‘resembling flax’, alluding to the leaves of some species, which superficially resemble those of flax.
The toad part of the common name has various explanations. In his Herball (1597), English herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) says that the name was applied to these plants, because the flowers “be yellow, having a mouth unto a frog’s mouth.” Some 60 years later, English herbalist William Coles (1626-1662), in his work Adam in Eden, or the Paradise of Plants, claims that the name arose “because toads will sometimes shelter themselves amongst the branches of it.”
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘creeping’, which is misleading, as the plant is often erect. The common name striped toadflax refers to the purple stripes on the whitish flowers.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek arrhenos (‘male’) and atheros (‘bristle’), alluding to the fact that only the male flowers have awns.
It is found from Iceland eastwards to the Ural Mountains, southwards to North Africa, Iran, and Kyrgyzstan. It is very common, growing in a wide variety of open habitats, for instance along roads, hedges, fields, and streams. It has been greatly favoured by the increased nitrogen fallout in later years.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘tall’. The common name alludes to its superficial resemblance to the cultivated oat (Avena sativa), described on the page Plants: Grasses.
In Ancient Greece, the generic name was applied to a grassy weed, presumably wild oat (Avena fatua). The word bromos means ‘noise’, alluding to the panicles rattling in the wind. Why the name was applied to bromes is not clear.
The specific and common names are derogatory, probably indicating that this species is worthless in all respects.
The generic name is classical Latin term for the cultivated barley (H. vulgare), derived from Proto-Italic horzdeom (‘bristly’), alluding to the long, prickly awns of these plants.
In China and Taiwan, the seeds are an ingredient in a green type of sticky rice dumplings, called qingtuan, which are consumed during the Qing Ming Festival (‘tomb-sweeping’). This festival is described on the page Culture: Graves.
The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’), alluding to the fact that this plant often grows along stone fences and house walls.
The generic name is Ancient Greek, simply meaning ‘fodder’.
It is a small plant, growing to a maximum of 25 cm tall, but often much lower. It is a very common weed in trampled places, such as trails and in cities.
The fruit is mostly a triangular nutlet, often winged, arranged in dense clusters, often conspicuously reddish-brown when ripe.
The generic name is the classical Latin word for sorrel. Dock is an old term applied to various plants with large leaves, whereas sorrel is a brownish-orange to pale chestnut colour, referring to the fruits of this genus.
Common sorrel has been cultivated for centuries. The leaves are full of vitamin C. They are edible when young, and are often used in salads, and applied to soups, sauces, or curries.
The common name sorrel is an old word for a brownish-orange to pale chestnut colour, referring to the brown fruits of the genus.
These plants climb due to the sensitivity of the leafstalks which, when touching another plant or something else, start twisting, curling around the object.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek klema (‘climber’).
This pioneer plant grows in open forests, shrubberies, and fallow lands, especially on nitrogen-rich soils. It is distributed in central and southern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, eastwards to Afghanistan. Elsewhere, it is widely cultivated, often escaping to form naturalized growths. In New Zealand, it has been declared an unwanted organism. In the Alps and the Pyrenees, it may be encountered up to elevations around 1,300 m.
It contains the toxic protoanemonin, which may cause reddening and itching of the skin. In the past, beggars smeared juice of the leaves on the skin to cause ulcerations, which might arouse pity in people. In Tuscany, spring sprouts were formerly used in a certain kind of omelettes, called vitalbini, which was maybe not so wise due to its toxicity.
Baskets were produced from the tough stems. In the Alps, in former days, children would smoke dry stems as cigarettes.
The specific name is the Italian name of the plant. In England, the name traveller’s joy was given in allusion to the profusion of pleasant feathery seedheads of this plant in the dark months leading up to Christmas. The name old man’s beard also refers to the seedheads. An old German folk name was Teufelzwirn (‘devil’s twine’), referring to its toxicity.
At maturity, a silky tuft of brownish hairs grows from the styles, which has given rise to a popular German name of these plants, Petersbart (‘Peter’s beard’), probably referring to St. Peter.
German Dominican friar, philosopher, scientist, and bishop Albertus Magnus (c. 1200-1280) says: “Wo diss wurtz in dem huse ist, da mag der tufel nicht schaffen, und fluhet sie, und darumb ist sie gebenedeyt für alle anderen wurtzeln.” (‘If you have this herb in your house, the Devil does not want to be there and flees from it, and this is why this herb is better than all other herbs’).
The generic name is the classical Latin name for avens. The English name is derived from the Latin avencia, which was the name of a kind of clover. Why it was applied to these plants is not known.
At an early point, it was associated with Christianity due to its leaves growing in threes and its petals in fives – the threes reminiscent of the Holy Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the fives with the Five Sacred Wounds that Jesus suffered on the Cross (four from the nails in hands and feet, and one from the spear that penetrated his side).
In folklore, wood avens was credited with the power to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against rabid dogs and venomous snakes. The root, which contains eugenol, were used as a spice in soups and also to flavour ale.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘grows in cities’ – not an appropriate name, as it is most common in forests.
The fruit is highly distinctive, a globular head on the domed tip of the flower-stalk, consisting of fleshy carpels, usually with many nutlets on the surface.
The generic name is the classical Latin word for bramble (below).
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘blue-grey’, alluding to the colour of the fruits.
It is highly invasive in some areas, forming dense thickets, which expel native vegetation and often threaten entire ecosystems. It is considered a noxious weed in many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘shrubby’.
Other pictures, depicting this species, are shown on the page Autumn.
The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek gala (’milk’), alluding to the usage of yellow bedstraw (G. verum) in rennet. The common name refers to the usage of this plant in beds. More about these issues on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.
In his delightful book All about Weeds, American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) has the following comment about this plant: “When one walks into some loose, trailing weeds, and they all seem glad to be torn from their roots in order to ride away clinging to his trousers, he has made contact with one of the many bedstraws (…) but if the stems cling to the clothing, the chances are that the find is one of two of them, Galium aparine or Galium asprillum. These are the two with the rough stems – the two that have this unique way of scattering their seeds. For of course those straws cling to the sheep’s wool and the dog’s hair just as they do to clothing, and sometimes they and their seeds are carried a long way by animals.”
Cleavers is also known by many other names, which allude to is hooked seeds and its scrambling habit, including catchweed, sticky bob, robin-run-the-hedge, and sticky willy.
This species is native to the major part of Europe, North Africa, and Temperate Asia, eastwards to Japan. It may also be indigenous in North America, and has become naturalized in Mexico, Central America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa.
These plants, comprising about 130 species of deciduous trees or large shrubs, are widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, with most species in Asia, others in Europe, northern Africa, and North and Central America. Only a single species occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.
The leaves are palmate in most species, and the foliage often turns a brilliant red or yellow in autumn. A number of pictures, depicting this autumn foliage, are found on the page Autumn.
The fruit consists of 2 connected single-seeded units, each with a long wing. When ripe, the fruits are often propelled a considerable distance by the wind. An account of the effectiveness of this spreading is described on the page Nature reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.
The generic name is the classical Latin word for maples.
At an early stage, it was introduced to North America, where it is now regarded as an invasive plant in many eastern states. For this reason, Massachusetts and New Hampshire have banned planting of this tree.
In autumn, the foliage attains a bright yellow colour.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘resembling Platanus‘ (plane trees), referring to the angular leaf lobes, which resemble those on the leaves of the oriental plane tree (Platanus orientalis).
An example of the effective spreading of sycamore maple is seen in nature reserve Vorsø, Horsens Fjord, Denmark, where former fields were abandoned in two steps, in 1928 and in 1978. In both cases, thousands of maple seeds, stemming from a few trees in plantations at the edge of the fields, were spread by the wind. The succession of these maple forests is described in detail on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.
The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘the false Platanus‘ (plane trees), referring to the leaves resembling the leaves of these trees.
The generic name is of unknown origin, possibly derived from the Latin sol (’sun’) referring to the fact that plants of this genus prefer to grow in sunny places. The popular name is a corruption of an ancient Germanic name of these plants, Nachtschatten, of unknown meaning. As Schatten also means ‘shadow’ in German, the name nightshade was introduced, but apparently this is a misnomer.
Previously, it was much used in traditional medicine for treatment of a large number of ailments, including skin diseases, warts, tumours, arthritis, rheumatism, bronchitis, heart ailments, jaundice, cough, diarrhoea, back and joint pains, and eye inflammations. The fruits, marinated in vinegar, and also a decoction of the root, were applied to cancerous sores and other swellings. It was also used as a diuretic, a purgative, and an emetic.
However, the plant is very poisonous and might paralyze the central nervous system, slow down heartbeat and respiration, and lower the temperature, causing vertigo, delirium, convulsions, and sometimes even death.
The specific name is Latin, mesning ‘bittersweet’, alluding to the taste of leaves and berries, being both bitter and sweet.
