Urban plant life

The generic name is derived from the Latin alternus (‘alternate’), and Ancient Greek anthera (‘anther’), presumably referring to the anthers being alternately fertile and barren.

In many places, it has become a huge problem in water courses, as it may block the flow of water. It is listed as invasive in a number of countries, including Spain, United States, New Zealand, India, China, Taiwan, Namibia, and South Africa.

The specific name refers to the unstalked inflorescences.

In his delightful book All about Weeds, Dover Publications (1974), American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) says about a species of pigweed, A. retroflexus:“One of the most robust, devil-may-care weeds is the pigweed. ‘Careless weed’ is another of its common names, and it comes by this name honestly enough. In good rich soil, it cares for nothing. Wind, hail, fair weather and foul are all the same to the pigweed. Nor does it care what plants are its competitors. It can usually shoulder our any plant within reach, and it has a considerable reach. The name pigweed, however, has no reference to the piggish nature of the plant. It refers to the gustatory pleasure the weed affords pigs. Hogs will leave their corn to feast on pigweeds. In spite of its bristly appearance (it always reminds one of a boisterous young sailor with a week’s growth of sandy beard on his face and his cap on the side of his head), the leaves are tender, and if the smacking of lips and satisfied grunts mean the same thing to pigs that they do to Man, the weeds must be delicious.”

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek a (‘not’, ‘without’) and maraino (‘to wither’), given in reference to the flowers, which last a very long time.

Leaves, as well as seeds, are eaten in many parts of the world. In Australia, this plant was also a source of food during the 19th Century. In 1889, botanist Joseph Maiden (1859-1925) wrote: “It is an excellent substitute for spinach, being far superior to much of the leaves of the white beet sold for spinach in Sydney. Next to spinach it seems to be most like boiled nettle leaves, which when young are used in England, and are excellent. This amarantus should be cooked like spinach, and as it becomes more widely known, it is sure to be popular, except amongst persons who may consider it beneath their dignity to have anything to do with so common a weed.” (Source: T. Low, 1985. Wild Herbs of Australia & New Zealand. Angus & Robertson)

In India, slender amaranth is utilized in traditional Ayurvedic medicine.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘green’.

In Taiwan, slender amaranth is very common in cities, especially in fallow areas, and along roads and embankments. These pictures are all from Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek keleos (‘burning’ or ‘blazing’), alluding to the colourful inflorescences.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘silvery’, like the common name alluding to the ripe inflorescences, which shine like silver.

Silver cockscomb is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The family name is derived from the Greek ana (‘upwards’) and kardia (‘heart’), alluding to the heart of the fruit (the ‘nut’) of the cashew nut, which is outwardly located.

The word sumac is derived from Ancient Syriac summaq (‘red’), referring to the red fruits of the genus. They have an acrid taste and are used as a spice. In North America, the fruits of staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) are soaked in cold water to make ‘pink lemonade’, a refreshing beverage, rich in vitamin C.

It is a shrub, growing to 5 m tall, leaves pinnately divided, with 7-8 pairs of ovate leaflets. The inflorescence is a terminal cluster of small white flowers, which later become brownish-red or greenish-yellow drupes, with a very acidic taste. They are dried and crushed to be used as a spice, which, together with other spices, form a mixture called za’atar.

Leaves and bark contain tannic acid and were formerly used in leather tanning, hence the specific name, derived from the Latin coriarium (‘leather’ or ‘tanning’). Various parts of the plant yield red, yellow, black, or brown dyes. Oil from the seeds are utilized to make candles.

The inflorescence of this family is unique. In almost all species, the flowers are arranged in terminal umbels, which may be simple, usually with bracts at the base, and each of the stalks, the so-called primary rays, ending in a flower. More commonly, the umbel is compound, consisting of a number of primary rays, each ending in a secondary umbel. Each of these umbels usually has small bracts, bracteoles, at the base, and a number of secondary rays, each ending in a flower. Usually, the secondary umbels together form a flat-topped inflorescence, mostly with white, yellow, pink, or purple flowers, rarely blue or bright red. The flowers have five petals and stamens. This also accounts for the sepals, if they are present. They are usually missing, however.

The family name is derived from the name of honey bees, genus Apis, referring to the fact that many plants of the family are much visited by bees and other nectar-sucking insects, in particular hovering flies.

The generic name is explained below.

Goutweed is native to southern Europe and western Asia, but was introduced as a garden plant to northern Europe as early as the Middle Ages. It has also been accidentally introduced to North America, and almost everywhere it has become a most annoying garden weed.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek khairephyllon, from khairo (‘to be glad’) and phyllon (‘leaf’), the classical name of garden chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium), a culinary herb, which is much used in Mediterrenean kitchens. Botanically speaking, however, the word chervil also applies to members of the genus Chaerophyllum.

The purplish, very hairy stem grows to about 1 m tall, leaves long-stalked, twice or thrice pinnate, pale or dark green, lobes ovate in outline, deeply toothed. Flowers are white. The plant is poisonous.

The generic name is derived from the Greek chairo (‘to please’) and phyllon (‘leaf’), thus ‘with pleasant foliage’. The specific name is from the Latin temulentum (‘drunken’), derived from temetum (‘an intoxicating drink’) and ulentus (‘full of’), alluding to the symptoms from poisoning by the plant being similar to those of alcoholic intoxication.

The family name is derived from Ancient Greek apo (‘away’) and kyon (‘dog’), alluding to the toxic dogbane (Cionura erecta), which was formerly utilized to poison dogs.

A large number of genera in this family formerly constituted the milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae), which is today regarded as a subfamily, Asclepiadoideae, of the dogbane family. An amusing description of the peculiar pollination method in the genus Asclepias is found on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek katharos (‘pure’) and anthos (‘flower’).

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek asplenon, the classical name of spleenworts, ultimately from splen (‘spleen’), alluding to its usage to cure anthrax in livestock.

It is a small, compact fern, growing to about 20 cm tall, fronds narrowly elliptic in outline, to 8 cm long and 1.6 cm broad, pinnately divided into 6-8 alternate, triangular pairs. The underside is covered in a dense layer of pale reddish-brown scales, giving rise to the common name. The leaves roll up in hot weather, displaying the scaly underside.

Previously, this fern was much utilized as a medicinal herb for treatment of a large variety of ailments.

The specific name is an ancient name of this plant, derived from the Persian name of it, cedracca.

It is a very widespread plant, found in all of Europe, eastwards across most of Siberia, in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, the Himalaya, and China. In Central Asia, it grows up to elevations of c. 3,300 m.

The specific and common names refer to the fact that it often grows on walls, and to the likeness of its leaves to those of common rue (Ruta graveolens).

This plant is very widely distributed, found in scattered locations in most parts of the world, growing in rocky habitats and on walls, from sea-level up to about 3,000 m. It is fairly common in the Pyrenees and the Alps.

This species and its near relatives were much utilized in traditional herbal medicine. Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.) and Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) both distinguished between a pale and a black adianton. They were variously called polytrichon (‘many hairs’), kallitrichon (‘fair hair’), trichomanes (‘fine hair’), and capillus veneris (‘venus hair’). They were supposed to possess general anti-toxic properties, used as a diuretic, to expel kidney stones, to cure pulmonary problems, jaundice, spleen diseases, and skin ailments, and to promote hair growth.

The specific name is explained above.

The generic name is derived from blechnon, an Ancient Greek term for ferns in general.

These plants were formerly placed in a separate family, Blechnacae, which is today regarded as a subfamily of the spleenwort family.

 

This oriental hard fern is clinging to a crack in a wall along a drainage canal, Taichung, Taiwan. (Photo copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

 

This one is growing in a crack along a balcony, Hanoi. (Photo copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

 

The inflorescence consists of many individual flowers, called florets, which are grouped densely together to form a flower-like structure, the flowerhead, technically called the capitulum. The flowerhead is surrounded by an involucre, consisting of densely packed green bracts, often erroneously called a calyx. The central disk florets are symmetric, and the corolla is fused into a tube. The outer ray florets are asymmetric, the corolla having one large lobe, which is often erroneously called a petal. In some species, ray florets, or sometimes disk florets, are absent.

English herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) informs us that during the Trojan War the Greek hero Achilles used yarrow to stop bleeding on wounded soldiers. Hence, the name Achillea was applied to the genus by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). It was already mentioned as a medical herb in De simplicium medicamentorum facultatibus, written by Greek-Roman physician, surgeon, and philosopher Aelius Galenus (c. 129-210 A.D.), also known as Claudius Galenus or Galen of Pergamon.

Various plants, including yarrow, were found in a 50-60,000-year-old Neanderthal grave in Iraq, perhaps indicating that these plants were used medicinally. (Source: G.P. Shipley & K. Kindscher 2016. Evidence for the Paleoethnobotany of the Neanderthal: A Review of the Literature. hindawi.com/journals/scientifica/2016/8927654)

The name yarrow is a corruption of gearwe, an ancient Anglo-Saxon name for common yarrow (below).

The greyish-green leaves are very finely dissected, aromatic, to 10 cm long. Flowerheads are numerous, sometimes up to 50, borne in a flat or slightly domed cluster to 30 cm across. Ray florets are white, much larger than the tiny yellowish or cream-coloured disc florets. The entire flowerhead is only to 8 mm across.

The specific name is derived from the many fine segments of the leaves, hence its popular names milfoil and thousand-weed. In parts of south-western United States, it is called plumajillo (Spanish for ‘little feather’), likewise alluding to the leaves.

The role of this species in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek a (‘without’) and geras (‘old age’), alluding to the fact that these plants flower for a long period of time.

The medical usage of these plants is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

A picture, depicting lance-leaved mugwort (A. lancea), is shown below at Ixeridium laevigatum.

In China, this species is sometimes used as a substitute for A. argyii to make moxa, which is much utilized as a healer in traditional Chinese medicine.

The generic name is from the Latin bi (’two’) and dens (’tooth’), alluding to the mostly 2 (sometimes 3 or 4) sharp, hooked teeth on the seeds, which easily get attached to animal pelts or people’s clothes, hereby often being spread a considerable distance from the mother plant. This way of seed dispersal has given rise to names like beggar-ticks, stickseed, farmer’s friend (sic!), needle grass, Spanish needles, stick-tight, cobbler’s pegs, Devil’s needles, and Devil’s pitchfork.

A South African website, farmersweekly.co.za/animals/horses/beware-those-blackjacks, says: “The common blackjack is not only an irritant to horses, (but) can cause them injury. (…) There can be few of us who have not spent ages picking them off our clothes after walking through the veld to catch horses in the early winter. Blackjacks that become entangled in the forelock of a horse can be a great irritant, and the animal will toss its head, if you try to remove them. The spines can injure the eyes, so it’s better to clip the forelocks short. Blackjacks can also get caught up in the long hair behind the fetlocks and pasterns, causing chronic irritation and lameness.”

Downy bur-marigold is reported to be a weed of 31 crops in more than 40 countries, Latin America and eastern Africa having the worst infestations. (Source: cabi.org/isc/datasheet/9148)

However, this species is not only a troublesome weed, but also has medicinal properties. In traditional Chinese medicine, it is used for a large number of ailments, including influenza, colds, fever, sore throat, appendicitis, hepatitis, malaria, and haemorrhoids. Due to its high content of fiber, it is beneficial to the cardiovascular system, and it has been used with success in treatment of diabetes.

In Taiwan, downy bur-marigold is extremely common, often covering huge areas, including in cities, where it pops up everywhere, as is obvious from the pictures below, all from Taichung.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kalypto (‘covered’ or ‘hidden’) and karpos (‘fruit’).

In Taiwan, Calyptocarpus vialis is a common city plant, often growing in cracks along sidewalks. These were photographed in Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from the Latin crassus (‘thick’ or ‘stout’), and Ancient Greek kephale (‘head’), presumably alluding to the rather robust flowerheads.

The numerous flowerheads, to 1 cm across, are in terminal clusters. Ray florets are missing, disc florets have a unique reddish-brown colour, more rarely orange or yellow. Leaves are mostly elliptic, to 12 cm long and 5 cm wide, hairless, margin irregularly toothed, sometimes pinnately lobed at the base.

It is used medicinally for indigestion and diarrhoea, and to invigorate the spleen. In Nepal, juice of the plant is applied to wounds, and young leaves and stems are eaten as a vegetable. Young flowerheads emit a mango-like fragrance when crushed.

The specific name means ‘resembling Crepis‘ (see below).

Other pictures, depicting Crassocephalum, are shown on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

The generic name is derived from the Greek krepis (‘slipper’ or ‘sandal’), according to some authorities referring to the shape of the fruit.

Presumably, the generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kyanos (‘blue’) and anthyllion (‘little flower’), alluding to the corolla.

It may grow to 1.2 m tall, with a many-branched inflorescence, containing numerous flowerheads with pinkish or purplish florets, all disc florets.

It is used medicinally for colds, and as a means to stop smoking.

It resembles Emilia sonchifolia (below), but that species is smaller, with a much smaller inflorescence, often with only a few flowerheads.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘ash-coloured’ or ‘grey’. It may refer to the stems.

The generic name may allude to a person named Emilie or Emily, but when French botanist Alexandre Henri Gabriel de Cassini (1781-1832) named the genus in 1815, he did not give any explanation.

This plant is also known as Cupid’s shaving brush, named for Cupid, the Roman god of desire, eroticism, and affection, alluding to the tiny flowerheads, which resemble miniature shaving brushes. The specific name is derived from the Greek sonkhos, the ancient name for sow-thistles, and the Latin folium (‘leaf’). The leaves of this plant often resemble those of Sonchus oleraceus (see below). However, they vary tremendously, from lyrate and pinnatifid to almost entire.

Lilac tasselflower is very common in Taiwan, also in cities, in this case Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek eri (‘early in the morning’) and geron (‘old man’), alluding to some species, which are covered with down when young. Some members of the genus contain an oil with a turpentine-like smell, which, supposedly, should deter fleas, hence the common name.

This plant contains an oil with a turpentine-like smell, which, supposedly, should deter fleas, hence its common name. Another popular name is bloodstanch, given by herbalists, who claim that an extract from leaves and flowers arrests haemorrhages from the lungs and alimentary tract.

It has numerous stems, branching from a woody rootstock to a height of about 25 cm, often forming dense clumps, stems slender, furrowed, smooth or sparsely hairy. Leaves alternate, lower ones large, elliptic, lobed or toothed, upper ones smaller, linear or lanceolate, entire, toothed, or shallowly lobed. Ray florets, up to 80, are white, mauve, or pink, disc florets yellow.

The plant gives a pleasant smell when crushed.

The specific name refers to Bavarian naturalist Wilhelm Friedrich Karwinski von Karwin (1780-1855), who was born in Hungary, but worked in Germany. He collected plants and animals in Brazil and Mexico.

The genus was named in honour of Ignacio Mariano Martinez de Galinsoga (1756-1797), director of the Royal Botanical Garden in Madrid, and physician to the Spanish Queen consort Maria Luisa de Parma. In Britain, the generic name was corrupted to gallant soldiers.

The stem is branched, sometimes growing to 75 cm tall, but usually much lower. The leaves are opposite, stalked or sessile, broadly lanceolate, to 11 cm long and 7 cm wide, margin weakly toothed. The flowerheads are tiny, to 5 mm across. The ray florets, usually 5, but sometimes up to 8, are usually white, sometimes pink, 3-lobed, to 1.8 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, disc florets yellow.

Leaves, stem and flowers are edible, and the subtle flavour, reminiscent of artichoke, develops after being cooked. It is also dried and ground into powder for usage in soups. In Nepal, juice of the plant is applied to wounds.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek gnaphallion (‘a lock of wool’), referring to the woolly leaves of many of these plants.

The natural habitat of this plant is humid areas, such as water-logged fields, but it is also able to thrive in drier areas, including city streets. In Russia, it has been used in folk medicine to treat high blood pressure.

The specific name is derived from the Latin uligo (‘dampness’), referring to the preferred habitats of this plant.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘smooth’, presumably referring to the smooth stem.

As these pictures show, rabbit milkweed may sprout in small cracks in roads and sidewalks, and along house walls. – Taichung, Taiwan. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name was the classical Latin name of the garden lettuce (below), derived from lactis (‘milk’), alluding to the milky sap of this plant. The English name is a corruption of the Latin word.

The main habitat of this plant is woodlands, but it may also be found in open areas, including forest clearings, city walls, stone fences, and along railroads.

The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’).

Today, it is cultivated in most parts of the world, mostly as a leaf vegetable used in salads, and also for sandwiches and wraps. It can also be added to soups.

It is native to Europe, North Africa, and temperate areas of Asia, and has also become naturalized elsewhere, growing along beaches, roads, and railroads, and as a field weed.

One folk name of prickly lettuce is compass plant. The leaves of its main stem are aligned north-south, offering the least surface area to the midday sun, but the maximum area to the weaker light early and late in the day.

Incidentally, this plant was named twice by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), in 1756 as L. serriola, and in 1763 as L. scariola, derived from the Latin escarius (‘edible’). The first name is probably a misspelling, which Linnaeus then corrected in 1763. However, according to the nomenclature rules, the first published name has priority.

The name scariola was used by Englishmen at least as far back as the 1400s. According to the Oxford Dictionary, one source said: “Wylde letus hat feldman clepyn Skariole.” (“Wild lettuce have field-men (farmers) called Skariole”).

The generic name is derived from the Latin matricis (’mother’s life’, i.e. the womb). Formerly another plant, feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), was regarded as a species of chamomile, named Matricaria parthenium by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). In Ancient Rome, feverfew was used for uterus problems.

The specific name is derived from the Latin discoides (‘disc-shaped’), referring to the flowerheads.

It grows to about 1 m tall, leaves spirally arranged on the stem, deeply lobed, grey-green or dark green with white veins and very sharp spines on lobes and apex. Flowerheads to 2 cm across, bracts numerous, spiny, ray florets absent, disc florets reddish-purple.

In Crete, the tender shoots are peeled and eaten raw.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek notos (‘spine’ – anatomical) and vasis (‘base’), hence ‘based on the spine’. This strange name alludes to the compressed achenes attached by the base of their upper side. The specific name refers to Syria. Presumably, the type specimen was collected there.

The generic name is a Latinized version of the Greek parthenos (‘virgin’), or maybe parthenion, which was the name of an unknown plant in Ancient Greece.

The stem grows to 1.2 m tall, leaves ovate or elliptic in outline, to 18 cm long and 9 cm wide, pinnately divided, ultimate segments lanceolate to linear, to 5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. Flowerheads to 3 mm across, in open panicles, florets snow-white, ray florets tiny or missing. This plant somewhat resembles certain species of Artemisia (above), but its flowerheads are more flattened, and pure white.

In America, it has a number of popular names, including bitterweed, carrot grass, congress grass, false chamomile, false ragweed, and white-top.

The specific name is from the Greek hystera (‘womb’) and phoros (‘bearing’), maybe alluding to the shape of the flowerheads.

This plant should be handled with caution, as it may cause dermatitis and respiratory malfunction in humans, and, if eaten by livestock, it may cause udder disease.

Santa Maria feverfew, Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

Inflorescences of Santa Maria feverfew, Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from the Latin senex (‘old man’), alluding to the white seed hairs of the genus.

In its native area, this species grows in a wide variety of disturbed habitats, including heavily grazed or recently burned grasslands, roadsides, and river banks, from sea level to altitudes around 2,850 m. In Europe, it is mostly found along highways and railways.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with unequal teeth’, alluding to the unequal teeth along the leaf margin.

Originally, sticky groundsel was a native of southern and central Europe and western Asia. Since the 1800s, it has spread considerably, mainly along railroads, and has become naturalized in northern Europe, Canada, United States, and elsewhere.

It is a slender plant, sometimes growing to 40 cm tall, but usually lower. It resembles sticky groundsel, but lacks the ray florets and the glandular hairs.

The generic name is a Latinized form of the Greek sonkhos, the ancient name for sow-thistles.

It grows to about 1.5 m tall, lower leaves alternate, to 35 cm long and 14 cm wide, lobed, with fine teeth along the margin, leaves getting gradually smaller up the stem. The flowerheads are yellow, to 5 cm across.

This species presumably originates from the Mediterranean region, but has become naturalized in most parts of the world. In Nepal, a paste of the plant is applied to wounds and boils. It is also collected for fodder, and tender parts are cooked as a vegetable.

In the picture below, prickly sow-thistle is growing in front of a tombstone in the Assistens Cemetery, Copenhagen, placed on the grave of Thorkild Weiss Madsen, who was active in the alternative-lifestyle area of Christiania (described on the page Culture: Folk art around the world.) The stone is shaped as a runic stone with a carved dragon and the following text (approximate translation): ”This stone was erected in memory of Thorkild by his wife and daughter. The good boy Eric the Red carved the runes.”

The specific name is derived from the Latin oleris, meaning ‘edible’. Young leaves can be eaten as salad or cooked like spinach. The common name refers to the fact that pigs like to eat this plant, and to the leaves, which resemble young thistle leaves.

It is distributed from Afghanistan eastwards to China, thence southwards to Sri Lanka and Java, growing in open areas, waste lands, fallow fields, and urban areas, from the lowlands to elevations around 2,300 m.

The specific name was given in honour of Scottish surgeon and botanist Robert Wight (1796-1872), who spent most of his life in southern India, where he was the leading botanical taxonomist, describing 110 new genera and 1,267 new species. He published a series of illustrated works in Madras, including the six-volume Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis (1838–53), the Illustrations of Indian Botany (1838–50), and Spicilegium Neilgherrense (1845–51).

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek symph (‘come together’) and trich (‘hair’), alluding to the woolly anthers, which resemble a tuft of hairs.

The stem grows to 1.5 m tall, leaves dark green, narrowly linear, with entire margin. The inflorescence is a raceme with numerous small flowerheads, to 1 cm across, disc florets yellow, ray florets varying in colour from white to lavender. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, including salt marshes, lawns, empty plots, and along ponds, fields, and roads.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘awl-shaped’. It is not clear what it refers to.

Disc florets are yellow, whereas ray florets are missing in most species. When present, they are mostly white.

The generic name is Latin, adapted from Ancient Greek athanatos (‘immortal’), probably referring to the persistence of these plants. The common name was adapted from Old French tanesie, a corruption of the Latin name.

Stems single or up to 3 together, to 80 cm tall, erect, branched, ridged. Leaves are mainly stalked stem leaves, once or twice pinnately lobed, to 10 cm long and 4 cm wide. Flowerheads 5-20, sometimes more, in an umbel-like cluster, involucre to 7 mm across, ray florets 10-20, white, to 1.2 cm long, disc florets yellow, to 2 mm long.

T. partheniifolium is native from Turkey and Ukraine eastwards to Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and northern Iran, mainly growing in dry or sandy areas, from sea level up to elevations around 2,000 m.

The medicinal properties of feverfew are discussed on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

These plants are characterized by stem and leaves having a milky sap, and most species have lobed or serrated leaves. The single flowerhead, 2-6 cm across, is borne on a leafless, hollow stem, 10-20 cm tall, sometimes more. Florets are yellow, very numerous, densely crowded.

Dandelion was first mentioned as a medicinal herb by Arabian physicians in the 10th or 11th Century, who called it a sort of wild endive (Cichorium), under the name of tharakhchakon, which was corrupted to Taraxacum. In French, these plants were named dent de lion (‘lion’s tooth’), alluding to the often strongly serrated leaves. This name was adopted by the English, corrupted to dandelion.

The role of dandelion in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

In these pictures from Copenhagen, Denmark, dandelion grows among wood chips, strewn along a street (top), and outside the Carlsberg Breweries. (Photo copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is Ancient Greek, presumably referring to the 3-toothed ray florets of lantern tridax (below).

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘prostrate’.

Lantern tridax is extremely common in Taiwanese cities, sprouting in cracks everywhere and often covering large areas. These pictures are all from the city of Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

When French botanist Alexandre Henri Gabriel de Cassini (1781-1832) named the genus in 1831, he wrote that the name honoured two Englishmen named Young: “deux Anglais célèbres, l’un comme poète, l’autre comme physicien.” The first may have been poet and dramatist Edward Young (1683-1765), and the other may have been Thomas Young (1773-1829), a multifarious scientist and physician.

It is native from Afghanistan eastwards to Japan, southwards to Sri Lanka, the Malayan Peninsula, and the Philippines, but has spread to most warmer areas of the world. It is common in disturbed areas, wastelands, roadsides, abandoned pastures, lawns, cultivated fields, and forest margins.

In cities, oriental false hawksbeard is mostly found in parks. These pictures are from Tunghai University Park, Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The family was named after the borage (Borago officinalis), native to the Mediterranean area and widely cultivated as a food plant and an ornamental. The popular name of the family is explained on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek ankhousa, the name of Alkanna tinctoria, which was used as a cosmetic. The name bugloss stems from Ancient Greek bouglosson, the name of Anchusa azurea, from bous (‘ox’) and glossa (‘tongue’), referring to the leaves, which are shaped like an ox-tongue and have a rough surface – just like the tongue of an ox.

The small flowers are tubular, to 1.2 cm across, petals 5, fused, corolla initially reddish-brown, later changing colour to dark blue or purple.

The plant was formerly cultivated for its edible leaves, and for the root, which was used as a dye and as a folk medicine. Originally, the name officinalis was derived from officina (‘workshop’, or ‘office’), and the suffix alis, which, together with a noun, forms an adjective, thus ‘made in a workshop’. However, in a botanical context, the word denotes plants species that were sold in pharmacies due to their medicinal properties.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek keros (‘wax’) and anthos (‘flower’). It was once believed that bees got wax for their hives from these flowers.

It is divided into 3 subspecies, major, which is widespread around the Mediterranean, oranensis of northern Africa, and purpurascens, which is restricted in the wild to southern Spain, but is widely cultivated elsewhere.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek echis, meaning ‘viper’. Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.), author of De Materia Medica, 5 volumes dealing with herbal medicine, noted the resemblance between the shape of the nutlets and a viper’s head. The long stamens, sticking out of the flower, also resemble a viper’s tongue. The name bugloss is explained above at Anchusa.

Formerly, it was believed that these plants could be used as a cure for snake bite. British herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) says: “It is a most gallant herb of the sun; it is a pity it is no more in use than it is. It is an especial remedy against the biting of the viper, and all other venomous beasts, or serpents; as also against poison, or poisonous herbs. Dioscorides and others say that whosoever shall take of the herb or root before they be bitten, they shall not be hurt by the poison of any serpent.”

Among American indigenous peoples, a decoction of the plant was taken in case of ’white urine’, indicating too much calcium in the urine.

In Swedish, the name of this species is blåeld, meaning ‘blue fire’, alluding to the wonderful blue colour of the flowers, which, when many plants grow together, does resemble ‘blue fire’.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

Petals are always 4 in number, arranged cross-wise, which has given rise to the alternative family name Cruciferae, from the Latin crux (‘cross’) and‎ ferae (‘bearing’). The fruit is a carpel, which, at maturity, splits into two valves, either less than 3 times as long as broad (a silicula), or more than 3 times as long as broad (a siliqua).

A very difficult family, in which ripe fruits are often necessary for identification.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘a little box’, referring to the fruit, which resembles a small bag.

A very variable plant, sometimes to 70 cm tall, but often much lower, stem erect, smooth or sparsely hairy, often branched. Basal leaves in a rosette, stalked, oblong or oblanceolate, to 10 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, base wedge-shaped, margin usually deeply dissected, but sometimes entire or variously toothed, tip pointed. Stem leaves are stalkless, lanceolate or linear, to 5.5 cm long and 1.5 cm broad, clasping the stem, margin entire or toothed. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary, many-flowered, to 30 cm long in fruit. Petals are usually white, but sometimes pinkish or yellowish, obovate, to 5 mm long and 1.5 mm broad.

The fruit is flat, inverted triangular, to 9 mm long and 6 mm broad. Its shape has given rise to the specific name bursa-pastoris (‘purse of a shepherd’), and to many of the popular names of the plant, including shepherd’s purse, lady’s purse, witches’ pouches, rattle pouches, case-weed, and mother’s heart.

An Irish name of the species, clappedepouch, was likewise given in allusion to the long-stalked siliques, which resemble a beggar’s cup. In the old days, lepers would ring a bell, or a clapper, receiving their alms in a cup at the end of a long pole, to avoid people being infected.

In Nepal, tender parts are cooked as a vegetable, and the seeds are used to kill mosquito larvae.

The role of shepherd’s purse in folklore and traditional medicine is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is the classical Greek word for dittander (L. latifolium).

Stem erect or ascending, many-branched, to about 35 cm tall, basal leaves forming a rosette, pinnately divided, to 5 cm long, lobes usually entire, rarely toothed. Stem leaves are sessile, linear, to 3 cm long and 3 mm wide, base cuneate, margin entire. Inflorescences are many-branched racemes, usually with an abundance of tiny flowers, petals usually white, sometimes yellow or pink, to 0.5 mm long. Fruits are ellipsoid, to 2.5 mm long and 2 mm wide, winged.

The leaves are edible when young. Medicinally, the plant has been used to treat skin disease, and a decoction to lower blood pressure and reduce respiration.

It is a native of North America, from southern Canada southwards to Mexico, but has been widely introduced to many other countries. It grows in open, drier places, and has readily adapted to a life in cities.

When the British colonized eastern America, they named the colony Virginia. When early botanists gave a plant the specific name virginicum, it applied to a much larger area than the present state of Virginia.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek sisymbrion, a term with several meanings, including water mint (Mentha aquatica), watercress (Nasturtium officinale), or a woman’s ornament. In Latin, the word sisymbrium indicated a fragrant herb, sacred to Venus.

This species grows in wasteland and fields, and along roads, also in towns. It is native to Europe and North Africa, but has been spread to most cooler areas of the globe, sometimes cultivated for its edible leaves and seeds.

It was formerly widely used in traditional medicine, reflected in the specific name, which means ‘sold in offices’, i.e. pharmacies. In Ancient Greece, it was believed that the plant was an antidote to all poisons. In his Complete Herbal, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) writes: ”It is good for all diseases of the chest and lungs, hoarseness of voice (…) The juice, made into a syrup with honey or sugar, is no less effectual for all other coughs, wheezing and shortness of breath. The seed is held to be a special remedy against poison and venom.”

“It is named by the French the ‘Singer’s Plant,’ it having been considered up to the time of Louis XIV an infallible remedy for loss of voice.” (Source: botanical.com)

The family includes lobelias and allies, comprising about 1,200 species previously placed in a separate family, Lobeliaceae, which is now regarded as a subfamily, Lobelioideae, of the bellflower family.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ’little bell’. It refers to the bell-shaped flowers of these plants.

It is native to a rather restricted area in the northern Balkans, growing on rocks. However, it is widely cultivated elsewhere and often escapes, mainly growing on old walls.

The specific name commemorates Austrian botanist Franz von Portenschlag-Ledermayer (1772-1822), who studied law at the University of Vienna. However, he soon gave up this profession and devoted himself entirely to botany. He undertook numerous botanical journeys through the Alps, collecting a vast number of plants.

Several other species of bellflower are described on the page Plants: Flora of the Alps and the Pyrenees.

The family name is derived from kannabis, the Ancient Greek name of hemp (Cannabis sativa), described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is a Latinized version of an old Germanic word for hop, homele. This may have been derived from haoma, a Zoroastrian ritual drink, which is identical to the Vedic drink soma. According to the Ancients, drinking haoma ‘gives insight’ and makes you ‘wise’. (Source: Richard Rudgley 1998. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown, and Co.)

In the late 1800s, it was imported to the United States as an ornamental, and for use as an Asian tonic. However, it has escaped in many places, often covering large areas of open ground. The vines grow rapidly during the summer, climbing up and over everything in their path, often forming dense mats, which block light to plants underneath. It is invasive in riparian and floodplain habitats where it displaces native vegetation, prevents the emergence of new plants, and kills newly planted trees installed for streamside habitat restoration. (Source: invasive.org/alien/pubs/midatlantic/huja.htm)

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘small wolf’, alluding to the tendency of hop to strangle other plants through its vigorous growth.

The family name is derived from Caprifolium, an older synonym for the genus Lonicera, from Proto-Indo-European kapros (‘goat’) and the Latin folium (‘leaf’).

Previously, these plants were placed in the family Valerianaceae, which has now been reduced to a subfamily, Valerianoideae, of the honeysuckle family.

The generic name is derived from the Latin valere (‘to be strong, healthy’), alluding to the medicinal properties of many valerian species.

It grows in a variety of habitats, including dry, sandy or rocky places, and on walls, from sea level up to altitudes around 1,000 m. It is native from western Europe and Morocco eastwards to Turkey, but has been introduced to many other places as a garden plant. It has escaped and become naturalized in many countries, including the British Isles, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, and is regarded as invasive in the latter two countries.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’, alluding to the flower colour.

The family name refers to the clove pink (Dianthus caryophyllus), which has a clove-like fragrance. The Ancient Greek name of the clove-tree was karyophyllon, derived from karyon (‘nut’) and phyllon (‘leaf’), which was adopted by early botanists in the form Caryophyllus aromatica (today Syzygium aromaticum). The family name was linked to the clove pink by French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836), known as the first person to publish a natural classification of flowering plants.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘feasting’, alluding to members of the genus Spergula (spurreys), which were once included in Sagina. Members of Spergula were utilized as vegetables.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘creeping’ or ‘lying flat on the ground’.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘resembling Spergula’ (spurreys).

This species is also common in open places like fields and along roads, and it may sometimes be encountered in cities.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’.

The generic name is derived from the Latin terminus (‘end’), referring to the fact that the leaves appear at the very tips of the shoots. Despite the common name, these plants are not even distantly related to the true almond (Prunus amygdalus). The name alludes to the fruits, which resemble almonds.

Several pictures, depicting the glorious winter foliage of the Indian almond (T. catappa), are shown on the page Autumn.

It is a medium-sized tree, to 20 m tall, with the crown arranged in layered tiers. The bark is smooth, pale grey, with protruding brownish lenticlels in streaks or spots. The leaves are in terminal rosettes, in groups of 4-9, slightly glossy, spatulate, to 7 cm long, with uneven margins. The small flowers are greenish, without petals, clustered in a spike, to 5 cm long. The fruit is a drupe, to 1.5 cm long.

In Madagascar, bark and wood is used for treating dysentery, and also for dyeing and tanning.

The specific name refers to a town in northern Madagascar.

When Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) named the genus, he let the two showy blue petals of Commelina communis (below) represent two Dutch botanists, Jan Commelijn and his nephew Caspar, whom he wished to honour. Jan Commelijn (1629-1692), also known as Johannes Commelinus, became a professor of botany, when many plants were imported from the Cape and Ceylon (today Sri Lanka). He also took part in establishing a botanical garden, named Hortus Botanicus. Caspar Commelijn (1667-1734) became the director of Amsterdam Botanical Garden. (Source: D.O. Wijnands, 1983. The Botany of the Commelins. Rotterdam)

In Chinese traditional medicine, the dried plant is utilized to treat a number of ailments, including sore throat, colds, oedema, bruises, and limited urination.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

A near relative, C. benghalensis, is eaten as a vegetable in Southeast Asia and Africa.

The stems of the major part of these plants are winding, hence the family name, from the Latin convolvere, ‘to wind’.

In his delightful book All about Weeds, American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) writes: “The vines wind themselves around the growing cornstalks, soy beans, cotton plants, and even around weeds that should be able to cope with such weak little plants as the morning glories seem to be. But they are not weak. Like snakes, those slender vines crawl up over the plants they select for their trellises, and soon the big morning glory leaves are shading the leaves of the trellising plants, and very soon after that those glorious flowers will be smiling on all the world like a big woman obstructing the view of a small boy at the movies.”

A large number of members of this family are described on the page Plants: Morning-glories and bindweeds.

It is a small climber with hairy stems, leaves short- or long-stalked, ovate or heart-shaped, more or less pointed, to 8 cm long and 6 cm wide, lateral veins 5-7 on each side of the midrib. The inflorescence is 1-3-flowered, axillary, sepals hairy, to 8 mm long, outer 2 long-pointed with a broadly triangular or heart-shaped base, to 8 mm across, inner ones narrower, corolla snow-white, tubular or funnel-shaped, to 1.3 cm long and 2.2 cm across.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with two flowers’, indicating that the inflorescence is often 2-flowered.

A vigorous climber, stems to 5 m long, twining around other plants or anything else that is upright, or often trailing along the ground, rooting at the nodes. The alternate leaves are ovate or rounded in outline, to 9 cm long and wide, palmate with 5-7 leaflets, the stalked segments entire, lanceolate, ovate, or elliptic, pointed. The flowers are solitary, sometimes 2 or 3 together, opening in the morning and closing in mid-afternoon, sepals to 8 mm long, ovate, with a short spine, corolla funnel-shaped, to 6 cm long and 8 cm across, violet or purplish with a darker throat, rarely completely white.

It is capable of very rapid growth, sometimes completely entwining trees and bushes. It is regarded as an invasive species in many countries, including Australia, China, and Taiwan.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘from Cairo’, where it was first collected.

Railroad creeper is extremely common in Taiwan. The pictures below are all from Taichung. In the upper picture, the plant in the foreground is parasol-leaf tree (Macaranga tanarius), also called heart leaf or nasturtium tree, of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae).

A form with pale blue flowers is very common in Taiwan, also in cities. In these pictures, plants are climbing up a house wall and fences, all in the city of Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

Obscure morning-glory is very common in Taiwanese cities. These pictures are from Taichung.

Obscure morning-glory, climbing on fences. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is the classical Latin name of a related genus, the houseleeks (Sempervivum), described on the page Plants: Flora of the Alps and the Pyrenees.

It is the only member of the genus, native around the Mediterranean, and further east to Uzbekistan and Iran. It grows in disturbed areas, such as empty plots, fields, stony areas, and roadsides.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek ekballo (‘to cast out’), referring to the explosive discharge of a stream of mucilaginous liquid, containing its seeds. The specific name is derived from the Greek elaterion, the drug prepared from this species.

The generic name is derived from louff, the Arabic name of Luffa cylindrica.

The species is also utilized in traditional folk medicine. The seeds are emetic and purgative, and they are eaten to expel intestinal worms. Fruit and seeds are also used in treatment of venereal diseases, especially gonorrhea.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with sharp angles’, referring to the prominent ridges of the fruit.

From vegetable gardens in Taichung, these cultivated luffas are climbing up fences. In the lower two pictures, several plants have climbed so high, that they could not be harvested, allowing them to produce mature fruits and spread their seeds. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from the Latin mordicus (‘biting’), alluding to the seed surface and margin, which look as if they have been bitten.

The specific name is unexplained.

The floral structure of these plants, the cyathium, is cup-like, consisting of fused bracts with nectary glands along the margin. These bracts are surrounding a ring of male flowers, each with one stamen, and a single female flower is in the centre. Together, these flowers resemble a single flower. The fruit is a capsule, with 3 valves.

King Juba II (c. 50 B.C. – 19 A.D.) of Numidia (in present-day Algeria and Tunisia) had an interest in plants and often described them, including a thorny, succulent plant from the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, whose latex was a powerful laxative. He named this plant Euphorbea in honour of his Greek chief physician, Euphorbus. In 1753, Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) adopted this name, in the form Euphorbia, for the entire genus.

It is sometimes called asthma plant, referring to one of its usages in traditional herbal medicine. It has also been utilized for female disorders, cough, bronchitis, worm infestations in children, dysentery, jaundice, pimples, gonorrhea, digestive problems, and tumors.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’, alluding to the stems of this plant.

The generic name is the Malagasy name of the type species, M. mauritiana, from Madagascar.

It is a shrub or small tree, sometimes to 12 m, with a crooked trunk to 40 cm in diameter. The spectacular leaves, sometimes reaching a length of 23 cm, are alternate, pale green above, greyish or whitish below, conspicuously nerved, with a stalk to 20 cm long, which is connected to the centre of the leaves, reflected in its most common popular name, parasol-leaf tree. The infloresces are panicles with numerous yellow-green flowers, with female and male flowers on different trees. The fruit is a prickly, yellow capsule, to 9 mm across.

Pictures, depicting the conspicuous leaf nerves, are shown on the page Nature: Nature’s patterns.

Bark and leaves, which have a large content of tannins, are used in traditional medicine to treat diarrhoea and as an antiseptic.

The specific name alludes to this usage, or it may refer to the fact that people of Ambon Island in Indonesia use the bark for tanning their fishing nets.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘tick’, referring to the seed, which resembles certain species of ticks. Another common name of this plant is Palm of Christ, which refers to the ability of its oil to heal wounds and cure various ailments. The medical properties of the plant are described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

The pictures below are from Taiwan, where this species is extremely common in the lowlands, often invading fallow plots in cities.

The generic name is derived from the Latin triadis (‘a group of three’), originally from Ancient Greek trias (‘three’). The name refers to 3-parted flowers.

The specific name means ‘wax-bearing’, referring to the tallow, which coats the seeds. Candles and soap are made from this wax, and in the Far East, the leaves are used in traditional medicine for treating boils. The sap and leaves are reputed to be toxic, and decaying leaves from the plant are toxic to other plants, inhibiting their growth.

Because of the tallow, this tree was introduced into the United States in the 1700s, and in the 1900s, it was widely planted along the Gulf Coast by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in an attempt to establish a soap-making industry. However, it soon spread beyond control and is today regarded as a serious pest in south-eastern U.S., which expels native plant species.

In winter, the leaves of Chinese tallow-tree turn various gorgeous shades of red, varying from orange to wine-red. Pictures, depicting such leaves, and also the white fruits, are shown on the page Autumn.

Leaves are pinnate in most species, but may also be trifoliate or palmate. The fruit, the legume or pod, is usually much longer than broad, splitting open along 2 seams.

According to the latest revision, this family now includes 6 subfamilies: Caesalpinioideae (including the former subfamily Mimosoideae) with 148 genera and about 4,400 species; Cercidoideae with 12 genera and about 335 species; Detarioideae with 84 genera and about 760 species; Dialioideae with 17 genera and about 85 species; Duparquetioideae with 1 genus and 1 species; and Faboideae (Papilionoideae) with 503 genera and about 14,000 species.

Flowers of the subfamily Faboideae have 5 petals, forming a unique structure. The upper petal, called the standard, is large and often reflexed, covering and protecting stamens and pistil. The two lateral petals, called the wings, are of equal size, surrounding the two bottom petals, which are free at the base, but fused at the tip, forming what is called the keel, as it resembles the keel of a boat. They enclose stamens and pistil.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek leukos (‘white’), alluding to the flower colour of white leadtree (below).

White leadtree is often a shrub, but may occasionally grow to about 18 m tall, leaves pinnately divided with 11-23 pairs of leaflets, each to 1.7 cm long, pale green above, whitish below. The inflorescences are white or pale cream-coloured, compact balls with numerous stamens. They are much visited by bees. The fruit is a straight pod, to 18 cm long, initially green, at maturity reddish-brown.

It is a prolific species, forming dense growths, often dispelling native vegetation. It is regarded as an invasive in numerous countries, including Taiwan, Hong Kong, several Pacific islands, northern Australia, southern United States, Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe and South America. By the Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN) it is considered to be among the world’s one hundred worst invasive species.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek leukos (‘white’) and kephale (‘head’), referring to the white flowerheads. The name river tamarind alludes to its leaves, which resemble those of the true tamarind (Tamarindus indica), presented on the page Plants: Ancient and huge trees.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek makros (‘long’) and ptilon (‘feather’), presumably alluding to the compound, feather-like leaves of these plants.

It is indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of America, from Texas southwards to Peru and Brazil. It has been introduced to many other countries as a fodder plant, but often escapes to form large growths which inhibit growth of indigenous species. It is regarded as invasive in Australia, South Africa, India, Hawaii, and many other islands in the Pacific.

The specific name is derived from the Latin ater (‘dark’) and purpureus (‘purple’), referring to the flower colour.

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘with 3 leaves’, referring to the leaves of these plants having 3 leaflets. It was the classical name of clover.

It is native to temperate areas of Eurasia and northern Africa, but is widely cultivated elsewhere as a fodder plant, bee-plant, or nitrogen-fixer. It grows in open areas, chiefly in fallow fields. It is sometimes encountered in cities.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘creeping’.

The family name is derived from Ancient Greek geranos (‘crane’), alluding to members of the genus Geranium (below) having fruits, whose shape resembles that of a crane’s bill.

The ripe fruit of these plants splits into five segments, each with a long, spirally twisting style, with a seed attached at the base. As the style twists, it is able to drill the seed into the soil.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek eroidios (‘heron’), referring to the resemblance of the fruit of many species to a heron’s bill.

In England, these plants are known as stork’s-bills, whereas they are called heron’s bills in North America, and also filarees, a corruption of Spanish alfilerillo, derived from alfiler (‘pin’). These names all refer to the shape of the fruit.

The specific name refers to the leaves, which resemble those of the water hemlock (Cicuta), of the carrot family (Apiaceae).

Stipules (leaf-like appendices at the base of leaves) are often distinct on these plants. After flowering, the style forms a long, straight or up-curved beak, which separates into 5 elastic spring-like coils, each containing a single seed that is expelled, usually when the style is touched.

The generic name is explained above under family name.

This plant grows in a variety of habitats, including open forests, meadows, grazing grounds, and wastelands. It is native to mountains of central and southern Europe and North Africa, eastwards to Ukraine, the Caucasus, and northern Iran.

It is widely cultivated and has become naturalized in numerous countries, northwards to Scandinavia, Finland, and European Russia, and also in north-eastern North America and Australia.

The stem is to 50 cm tall, much-branched, hairy or smooth. Leaves are palmate, long-stalked, deeply dissected, to 4 cm long and 7.5 cm wide. The stem is often reddish (var. rubricaule), and the leaves turn red towards the end of the flowering season. The small flowers, to 1.5 cm across, are terminal, usually in pairs, petals pink, to 1.4 cm long.

When touched, the entire plant exudes a strong, unpleasant smell, hence the popular name stinking Bob. This smell is due to the presence of an essential oil.

In former days, this species was known as Saint Robert’s herb, like the specific name referring to French abbot and herbalist Robert de Molesme (c. 1028-1111), one of the founders of the Cistercian Order. He used it to cure people, suffering from various diseases, including diarrhea, liver and gall bladder problems, toothache, and wounds. American native tribes also utilized it medicinally.

In his booklet Chrut und Uchrut (in English called Weeds – a useful booklet on medicinal herbs), from 1911, Swiss priest and herbalist Johann Künzle (1857-1945) states the following: “The application of Herb Robin is also very effective against abscesses and inflammations of cattle. Glory be to God.”

Members of this family usually have 4 petals and 4 sepals.

The fruits are capsules, which are initially green and succulent, later turning dark brown and dry. They split along six or seven lines, to release the numerous small and winged seeds.

The generic name was applied by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in honour of a Swedish merchant, Magnus von Lagerström (1696-1759), who was director of the Swedish East India Company. Lagerström was a keen naturalist, and despite never visiting Asia, he was able to procure many specimens from India and China, which he presented to Linnaeus. (Source: E. Bretschneider 1898. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China)

Due to its gorgeous inflorescences, it is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree. A substance, known as banaba, which is prepared from dried leaves in the Philippines, is used to treat diabetes and urinary problems. Elsewhere, a poultice made from the leaves is taken against malaria, and it is also applied to cracked feet. A decoction of the bark is used as a treatment against diarrhoea and abdominal pain.

This tree has a wide-spread root system, and it has been widely planted as a means to control soil erosion.

The specific name means ‘beautiful’ in Latin, derived from species (‘appearance’) and‎ osus, a suffix forming adjectives.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for mallow, adapted from the Greek word for the same plants, malakhe, originally from Hebrew malluah, a plant used as salad. The common name is a corruption of Old English mealwe, an adaptation of the Latin name. The word for the colour mauve was adapted from the French name of these plants.

It grows in open areas, including fallow fields, along hedges, and on the inner part of beaches. Stem to 1 m long, erect or ascending, leaves roundish, toothed, with 5-7 lobes, flowers in axillary clusters, petals pale violet or bright pinkish-purple with darker veins.

Several places around the Mediterranean, the leaves are steamed with garlic and tomatoes, eaten as an appetizer or a salad. In Egypt, the leaves are made into a stew-like vegetable dish, known as khobeiza. The leaves were also eaten as a vegetable in Europe in the 19th Century. The flowers were spread on doorways and woven into garlands for celebrating May Day.

In traditional medicine, the seeds were taken internally in tea to relieve irritation or inflammation of the mucous membranes, and the leaves were used in a poultices to soften the skin. A yellow dye can be obtained from the plant.

Despite the specific name, which means ‘grows in forests’, this species mainly occurs in open areas, including waste places and along beaches and roads.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek mazos (‘breast’), alluding to the ridges on the lower lip of the flower.

The generic name is the Ancient Greek word for the ash-tree (Fraxinus), alluding to the resemblence of the leaves to those of ash trees.

In Greek mythology, Melia was one of the Oceanids, daughter of the Titans Okeanos and Tethys.

It is mostly a small tree, but may sometimes reach a height of 35 m. The bark is brown with narrow vertical or slanting grooves. The leaves are long-stalked, dark green, to 50 cm long, twice or thrice pinnate, with ovate or elliptic leaflets, to 7 cm long, margin toothed. The flowers are star-shaped, pink or lilac, to 1.8 cm across. They are arranged in clusters, growing from the leaf axils. The fruit is a drupe, about 8 mm across, light yellow at maturity, often hanging on the tree all winter, unless they are eaten by birds. They are poisonous to humans, but the birds are not affected.

The specific name stems from Persian azad dirakht, meaning ‘noble tree’.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where this species is commonly planted as an ornamental tree, and escaped specimens may sometimes be encountered.

The genus was named for Pierre Marie Auguste Broussonet (1761-1807), professor of botany at the botanical garden in Montpellier. He brought a male tree of B. papyrifera (below) from a botanical garden in Scotland to Paris, where a female tree was growing. The result was that he was able to describe the fruit.

As its name implies, fibres of paper mulberry were formerly utilized to produce paper, and in parts of the Pacific, cloth is still made from the bark. The wood is used for making furniture and utensils, and the roots can be used as rope. The orange fruit is fleshy and edible, and the leaves can also be eaten when cooked. Fruit, leaves, and bark were formerly used in traditional medicine.

In the United States, paper mulberry was introduced as a fast-growing shade tree, but due to its vigorous growth it soon began to displace native species, and today it is considered to be an invasive in the south-eastern states. In Pakistan, it is regarded as one of the worst weeds, and it is a highly significant invasive plant on the pampas of Argentina. It is also one of the most dominant invasive species in forests of Ghana and Uganda.

The leaf shape of paper mulberry varies from almost entire to deeply indented. – Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

One group of fig trees are the so-called strangler figs. Most seeds of these species begin their life as an epiphyte in a tree, the seed sprouting in a crack, or often in a pile of bird dung, delivered by the bird that ate the fig fruit. (The seed is not harmed by passing through the gut of the bird.)

Over the years, aerial roots of the young strangler fig grow down to the ground, where they take root, while other roots wrap themselves around and over time completely enveloping the host tree, which is eventually strangled to death. As its trunk decays, the fig tree is left as a hollow cylinder of aerial roots.

Many of the strangler figs not only grow on trees, they also very often sprouts in cracks on buildings. If they are left in peace, their roots will destroy the building.

Fig flowers are unique, hidden inside a syconium, a globular or pear-shaped receptacle with a very small opening, during which tiny fig wasps enter, belonging to various families in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. Each of these fig wasps only enter one species of fig.

Inside the syconium, the females lay eggs in sterile female flowers, which serve as food for the larvae. At the same time, they fertilize other female flowers with pollen, which was deposited on them just inside the opening, where the male flowers are situated. Later, the receptacle swells up, forming the fig, which contains many seeds.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for fig.

Many members of the genus are described on the page Plants: Fig trees.

Pipal is native to the Indian Subcontinent, south-western China, and Southeast Asia, and is widely planted elsewhere in warmer countries. It belongs to a group of fig trees, called strangler figs. A pipal seed takes root high up in a tree, from where the sprouting plant sends aerial roots down to the ground. Over the years, these aerial roots wrap themselves tightly around the host tree, strangling it.

Pipal and many other fig species are described on the page Plants: Fig trees, whereas the role of pipal in religion and traditional medicine is related on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The leaves are ovate with rounded or heart-shaped base, dark green and rather thin, to 20 cm long and 12 cm wide, with a slender leaf-stalk to 12 cm long. The leaves are shed regularly. The fruits are pinkish, red, or purple with white dots, arranged in large clusters along the branches.

It is native to Indochina, Malaysia, and Indonesia, but is often planted as an ornamental tree elsewhere, for instance in China, Taiwan, and Japan.

Aerial roots of a giant sea fig, climbing over the remains of a former warehouse of Tait & Co., in the town of Anping, Taiwan. Today, the building is called Anping Tree House. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is the classical Latin word for mulberry.

The fruits, which resemble bramble berries, are edible raw, and a fine jam can be made from them. Caterpillars of the butterfly Calinaga buddha (Nymphalidae) feed on leaves of this tree.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘southern’.

In Taiwan, Japanese mulberry has readily adapted to a life in cities, popping up in cracks everywhere. These pictures from Taichung show fruiting trees. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The family name is derived from Onagra, the original name of evening-primroses (today called Oenothera). The term Onagra was first used in botany in 1587, meaning ‘(food) of onager’, an Asiatic species of wild ass (Equus hemionus). It is most odd that this name was applied to evening-primroses, which were originally purely American plants.

The fruit is a long capsule, splitting longitudinally, and the seeds have long hairs, an adaptation for wind-spreading.

There is much controversy as to the name of this genus. Initially, Chamaenerion may have originated as early as 1561. It is derived from the Greek khamai (‘near the ground’) and nerion, the Ancient Greek name of the oleander (Nerium oleander), alluding to the oleander-like leaves of rosebay willow-herb (below). In 1753, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) placed these plants in the genus Epilobium (below). However, many botanists disregarded his decision, preferring Chamaenerion.

In 1818, French naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (1783-1840) proposed the name Chamerion, suggesting it as either a subgenus or genus. Rafinesque had his own peculiar rules of botanical nomenclature, regarding it as appropriate to shorten existing generic names. His new name, however, was not widely accepted until published in 1972 by Czech botanist Josef Ludwig Holub (1930-1999), who designated a different type species, Epilobium amenum. However, as this species is now included in C. angustifolium, Chamaenerion has precedence over Chamerion. Some authorities still include these plants in Epilobium. (Source: A.N. Sennikov 2011. Chamerion or Chamaenerion (Onagraceae)? The old story in new words, Taxon 60 (5): 1485-1488)

The common name alludes to the similarity of the leaves of rosebay willow-herb to those of certain species of willow (Salix). The name fireweed refers to the ability of this species to rapidly colonize areas, burned by fire.

It is very widely distributed in northern temperate and subarctic areas, southwards to Morocco, the Himalaya, northern Indochina, Korea, and northern United States. It is fairly common in the Himalaya, from Pakistan eastwards to Myanmar, at elevations between 3,000 and 4,700 m.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘narrow-leaved’.

The genus was named by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in honour of German botanist Christian Gottlieb Ludwig (1709-1773). However, it seems that Ludwig was not too happy about this honour. Maybe the flowers of this genus were not pretty enough? Or he didn’t like aquatic plants to be named after him?

The specific name refers to the likeness of its leaves to those of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), of the mint family (Lamiaceae).

The pictures below are all from the city of Taichung, Taiwan.

This species closely resembles water primrose-willowherb (L. peploides), which, however, usually has elliptic or ovate leaves and 5 overlapping petals.

These plants vary greatly in size, from dwarves 10 cm high to giants 3 m tall. Most species have yellow flowers, some white, purple, pink, or red. Despite their name, they are not closely related to the true primroses (Primula).

It is a native of Brazil, but is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant, often becoming naturalized.

Many genera in the family are hemiparasites, i.e. they contain chlorophyll, making them able to partly sustain themselves. These hemiparasites were formerly included in the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae), but, following extensive DNA research, they have been moved to the broomrape family.

A large number of species are described on the page Plants: Parasitic plants.

The generic name is derived from the Greek orobos (‘vetch’) and ankhein (‘to strangle’), alluding to the bean broomrape (O. crenata), which is a common parasite on the fava bean (Vicia faba).

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘branched’.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek oxus (‘sharp’, i.e. with a sharp taste), ultimately from oxos (‘vinegar’), alluding to the sour taste of the leaves of several species, especially common woodsorrel (O. acetosella).

The native area of this plant is possibly from the Indian Subcontinent eastwards to Japan, but this is not certain. Today, it is found across the planet, except in colder regions. In many places, it is regarded as a noxious weed in gardens, fields, and lawns. In Central Asia, it may be encountered up to altitudes around 3,400 m.

It may have been introduced to Italy before 1500. It was described scientifically in 1753 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who received specimens from Italy. (Source: Q.J. Groom, J. van der Straeten & I. Hoste 2019. The origin of Oxalis corniculata L. PubMed 30783568)

It is utilized for a variety of diseases, including peptic ulcer, diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, and haemorrhoids. The leaves are edible, with a taste reminiscent of lemons, and they are a good source of vitamin C. They can also be pickled.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘having small horns’. Presumably, it refers to the seeds, which have several ridges across, some slightly curved like horns.

Many genera of the family have gorgeous flowers, including true poppies (Papaver, below), which often have bright red flowers, Himalayan poppies (Meconopsis), and horned poppies (Glaucium). Several Himalayan poppies are presented on the page Plants: Flora in the Himalaya 2, true poppies on the page In praise of the colour red, horned poppies on the page Plants: Flora of Turkey.

Two groups of plants, which were formerly regarded as separate families, are now included in the poppy family, namely Fumariaceae, which includes corydalises, fumitories, and bleeding hearts, and Pteridophyllaceae, with only one genus and one species, Pteridophyllum racemosum, found in Japan.

The generic name is the classical Latin term for poppies.

It is quite variable, growing to about 60 cm tall, stem with stiff bristles, basal leaves forming a rosette, stalked, hairy, to 15 cm long and 3 cm wide, pinnately lobed, each lobe with a fine spine at the end, stem leaves alternate, smaller, sessile. The showy flowers, sometimes to 7 cm across, have 4 orange-red petals. The similar corn poppy (P. rhoeas) has darker red petals, usually with a black spot at the base, which lacks in the long-headed poppy.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘in doubt’. Perhaps, when Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78) named the plant in 1753, he was in doubt, whether it was the same species as the corn poppy.

The generic name means ‘the false Fumaria‘ (fumitory), another genus in the poppy family.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘yellow’, referring to the flower colour.

Numerous genera, which were formerly placed in the family Scrophulariaceae, have been moved to this family.

The generic name is derived from the Latin cymbalum (‘cymbal’), referring to the similarity of the rounded leaves of some species to the shape of a cymbal.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing on walls’ – a most descriptive name. The common name refers to the leaves, which resemble those of ivy (Hedera helix).

The generic name is Medieval Latin for ‘vineyard’. Presumably, some plantain species were observed growing in vineyards as weeds.

It usually grows close to the sea, but may also be encountered along salted roads. It is native to Eurasia and North Africa, but has been introduced elsewhere as a fodder plant. In Italy, it is utilized as a vegetable, called erba stella (‘star-shaped herb’).

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek korone (‘crow’) and pous (‘foot’), alluding to the leaf shape.

In Greek mythology, Korone was a young woman who was once walking by the seashore, where the sea-god Poseidon saw her and tried to seduce her. When his efforts failed, he attempted to rape her instead. Korone fled, crying for help, and Pallas Athena, the goddess of wisdom, took pity on her and transformed her into a crow, thus making her able to flee from Poseidon.

The common name also alludes to the leaves, which may sometimes resemble the antlers of a roe deer.

The specific name refers to the lance-shaped leaves.

When the Europeans emigrated to North America, they somehow brought the seeds along, and the plant soon spread wherever the immigrants went, the seeds probably embedded in mud sticking to the horses’ hooves. This spreading was noticed by the indigenous peoples, who called it ‘white man’s footprint’.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘large’, i.e. compared with other plantain species.

The generic name is probably of Celtic stock, from ar (’near’) and mor (’sea’), alluding to the fact that common thrift (below) usually grows near the sea. In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico (‘Notes on the Gallic War’), Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) mentions an area between the rivers Seine and Loire, which he calls Aremorica. Presumably, thrift was growing here. The Old French name of the plant, armoires, became Latinized as armerios in 1537, later written Armeria. (Source: J. Corneliuson 1997. Växternas namn. Vetenskapliga växtnamns etymologi. Språkligt ursprung och kulturell bakgrund. Wahlström & Widstrand)

It is native to subarctic and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, growing along coasts and in other saline areas.

In the old days, when sweets were not everyday treats like today, children would suck out nectar from flowers of thrift – or simply eat the entire inflorescence.

The specific name, from the Latin mare (’sea’), informs us that thrift is a seashore plant. However, following the introduction of salt-strewing on snow-covered roads in northern Europe, this species has spread inland, where it is now common along roads, even in cities.

A large number of species are described on the page Plants: Grasses.

In Ancient Greece, the generic name was applied to a grassy weed, presumably wild oat (Avena fatua, see above). The word bromos means ‘noise’, alluding to the panicles rattling in the wind. Why the name was applied to bromes is not clear.

The specific and common names are derogatory, probably indicating that this species is worthless in all respects.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek kegchros (‘millet-grass’), alluding to the resemblence of some of these plants to certain types of millet. The name fountain grass alludes to the leaves and seedheads of some members, resembling a spray from the base of the plant.

Stems erect, to 1 m tall, leaves erect or drooping, to 45 cm long and 1 cm wide. The inflorescence is a silvery-white spike, densely covered in bristles. Later, the spike turns yellow, and when the seeds ripen it turns brown.

The specific name means ‘resembles Alopecurus’ (foxtail), derived from Ancient Greek alopex (‘fox’), oura (‘tail’), and oides (‘resembling’), thus ‘like a foxtail’, alluding to the spike. Other common names include Chinese fountain grass and dwarf fountain grass.

This species is native to tropical America, but has become naturalized in most tropical and subtropical areas, easily spreading by its spiny fruits, which attach themselves to almost anything. It grows in many different habitats and is regarded as an agricultural weed in 35 countries.

These pictures from Taichung show the spiny fruits of southern sandspur. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name refers to the goddess Chloris, in Greek mythology the protector of plants.

Whatever its origin may be, it has been accidentally introduced to most warmer parts of the world and is regarded as an invasive in a number of countries, including Australia, Korea, Thailand, Cambodia, and India.

It is a common weed in sugarcane and rice fields, which is a serious problem, as it is a host of a number of rice insect pests, including white-backed planthoppers (Sogatella furcifera and Sogatodes pusanus), rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius), rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata), cereal thrips (Haplothrips ganglbaurei and Chirothrips mexicanus), and others.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘bearded’, alluding to the inflorescence.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where peacock-plume grass is extremely common, often covering large tracts of fallow land.

These tufts of peacock-plume grass have taken root in cracks in the asphalt in an abandoned parking lot, Taichung. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is Latin, probably meaning ‘grass straw’. The English name is a corruption of the Latin name.

It is cultivated as an ornamental plant, used for lawns and as groundcover.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’, alluding to the reddish spikelets.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for barley, derived from Proto-Italic horzdeom (‘bristly’), alluding to the long, prickly awns of these plants.

In China and Taiwan, the seeds are an ingredient in a green type of sticky rice dumplings, called qingtuan, which are consumed during the Qing Ming Festival (‘tomb-sweeping’). This festival is described on the page Culture: Graves.

The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’), alluding to the fact that this plant often grows along stone fences and house walls.

These pale spikes of wall barley stand out against house walls in the village of Jyllinge, Zealand (top), and in the town of Rønne, Bornholm, both in Denmark. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

It is a tuft-forming species, growing to 50 cm tall, with pale green leaves and numerous short, ovate inflorescences, which turn buff or white when ripe.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek lagos (‘hare’) and oura (‘tail’), genitive urus, referring to the fluffy inflorescence. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘ovate’, alluding to the shape of the inflorescence.

The generic name may be derived from Ancient Greek melas (‘black’), referring to the characteristic black seeds of this genus, or perhaps from Ancient Greek melinos (‘ashy-grey’), which may allude to the colour of the inflorescences of Natal grass, before they turn snow-white.

It is native from Mauritania and Sudan southwards to the Cape Province, and is also found in Madagascar and southern Arabia. However, it has been introduced as an ornamental, or unintentionally, to many other parts of the world. It has been declared an invasive plant in Mexico, United States, Australia, the Dominican Republic, and French Polynesia.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘low’, probably referring to the growth of tufts.

Natal grass is very common in Taiwan, often growing along roads or in abandoned plots. The pictures below are all from Taichung.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of foxtail millet (Setaria italica, see caption Cereals below). The origin is uncertain, probably either from panis (‘bread’ or ‘loaf’), or from panus (‘an ear of millet’).

The stems vary in height, from 20 cm to 1 m, erect or arching. Leaves are to 30 cm long and 6 mm wide, flat or with a keel. The inflorescence is a loose, spreading panicle, to 20 cm long, spikelets very small, to 3 mm long. It readily spreads by its large, branching rhizomes, which are pointed, giving rise to the name torpedograss. By Mississippi State University, it is referred to as “one of the world’s worst weeds. (…) When fully matured, torpedograss can grow up to 3 feet tall and form dense monotypic stands that out compete native species and lead to a loss of diversity and overall ecological health.”

The specific name is Latin, meaning either ‘creeping’ (which is a very bad name for this tall grass), or ‘unexpected’, ‘suddenly’, which may allude to it popping up everywhere.

Torpedograss is very common in Taiwan, also in cities. These pictures are all from Taichung.

In these pictures, torpedograss forms a large growth along a fence. (Photos copyright © by Kaj Halberg)

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (‘many’) and gony (‘knee’ or ‘joint’), alluding to the swollen nodes on the stems of many species.

Prostrate knotweed is very variable, and in its widest sense it contains a number of species or subspecies. It is branched from the base, stems mostly creeping, but occasionally ascending, growing to 70 cm long/tall, sometimes more. Leaves are numerous, short-stalked, linear, lanceolate, or elliptic, on the main stem to 4 cm long and 1.2 cm wide, smaller on the branches, margin entire, tip pointed or rounded. The small flowers, to 4 mm across, are solitary or in small clusters at the nodes, corolla white or pinkish, often with a greenish base.

This species is eagerly eaten by cows and chickens, and the seeds are much relished by small birds. This was observed by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78), when he named the plant aviculare, derived from the Latin avicula (‘small bird’).

In folk medicine, the juice has been used to stop nose-bleed and other types of bleeding. Tea made from the plant was used for diarrhoea, cough, bronchitis, and bleeding haemorrhoids.

In his play A Midsummer Night’s Dream, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) calls this plant “the hindering knotgrass”. In those days, it was believed that its juice would interfere with the growth of young children and domestic animals.

The fruit is a triangular nutlet, mostly winged, in dense clusters, often conspicuously reddish-brown when ripe.

An old home remedy, if you are stung by a nettle, is to apply the juice of dock to the affected area, which will afford instant relief. An old rhyme says:

Stem erect, branched, usually below 1 m tall, occasionally to 1.5 m, leaves lanceolate or sometimes almost linear, to 30 cm long and 6 cm wide, base truncate or somewhat heart-shaped, margins entire, strongly wavy, tip pointed. Inflorescences are dense terminal panicles, flowers 10-25 in whorls, petals ovate, to 6 mm long and 5 mm broad, nuts reddish-brown, to 3 mm long and 2 mm wide.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘curly’, alluding to the strongly wavy leaf margin.

Stem erect, furrowed, to about 1 m tall, basal leaves short-stalked, to 25 cm long and 10 cm wide, with wavy margin. Inflorescences are terminal panicles with flowers in multiple whorls, sepals pale green, with irregularly toothed margin, nutlet to 2.5 mm long, broadly ovoid with 3 sharp edges, dark brown.

The leaves are cooked as a vegetable or added to soup, and they may be dried for later use. The nutlets are also edible, used with rice or ground into a powder for making dumplings.

Despite being slightly toxic, this plant is utilized in traditional Chinese medicine, the root as a detoxifier and a laxative, root and fruit to stop bleeding and relieve constipation. All parts can be used to kill insects.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (‘many’) and pous (‘foot’), in allusion to the many equal lobes on the leaf.

A picture, depicting the sporangies, is shown on the page Autumn.

In former days, polypody was utilized as food, and also used in folk medicine as a purgative and vermifuge.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.