Hinduism

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Vedas were learned by heart by Brahmins (scholars, or ‘priests’), and were passed on orally from generation to generation, until they were written down around 1800 A.D. The Vedas relate Aryan gods and myths, and among the Aryans, ritual offerings were the main essence.

Gods and myths from the local Dravidian religion in the Indus Valley were incorporated into the Aryan religion, and Hinduism is the result of this amalgamation.

Hinduism also differs from other world religions in that it does not instruct its followers to pray to specific gods, or to perform specific rituals. The spiritual universe is interpreted from the Vedas, and also to some degree from the great epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.

There is a huge difference in the way that a philosopher and a farmer will interpret and perform his religion, and Hinduism is so capacious that the business man of today can also find a meaning in it. For the major part of Hindus, their religious belief and the daily life are intertwined to an extent, that Hinduism is best described as a way of life as well as a religion.

The Aryan invaders were pale-skinned, whereas the local Dravidian inhabitants, whom the Aryans made their slaves, were dark-skinned. People were divided into four castes, in Sanskrit varna, which merely means ‘colour’ – in all probability referring to the various skin colours of the Indus Valley population. According to one Veda text, this classification of people was dictated by the gods.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Originally, the Brahmins made rules for the righteous way of life for the four castes. Naturally, they placed themselves in the uppermost caste, Brahman, claiming that they originated from the mouth of the god Brahma, the creator of the Universe (see caption Hindu deities). Today, not all Brahmins are scholars, but include persons from other trades, including farmers.

The second caste, Kshatriya (in Nepal called Chhetri), were said to originate from Brahma’s arms. Traditionally, members of this caste were warriors, whose duties included protecting the country against invaders. In today’s society, they often occupy high posts in the armed forces and in the police, or as government officials, but the caste also includes traders and others.

The third caste, Vaishya, include farmers, artisans, traders, and others. They were said to originate from Brahma’s thighs.

These three higher castes are classified as dvija (‘twice-born’). Across their body, from the left shoulder to the right hip, many men of these castes wear a sacred string (janai), consisting of three twined threads. The string of Brahmins is made of cotton, the one of Kshatriyas of hemp, and the one of Vaishyas of wool. (More about janai is related in the caption Hindu festivals below.)

The fourth caste, Shudra, typically including labourers and servants, were said to originate from Brahma’s feet.

Over time, these four basic castes have been split into thousands of sub-castes, called jati, often based on the various branches of trade. Most Hindus marry within their caste, or even sub-caste, and it is your duty to observe its rules, morals, and rituals. These duties are called dharma (not to be confused with the Buddhist dharma).

Outside the caste system are dalit – ‘the untouchables’, or, as they are termed by the Indian government, ‘the scheduled caste’. They perform ’unclean’ work, such as refuse disposal and dealing with dead people or animals, including cremation and leather work. In principle, all non-Hindus are dalit, including Christians, Muslims, Indian tribal peoples, and tourists.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Swayambhunath and other stupas are described on the page Religion: Buddhism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The temple is in two storeys, built in the traditional Nepalese pagoda style. According to Nepalese legend, it dates back to the 17th Century, during the reign of the kings of Gorkha.

The temple began to lean after the 1934 earthquake, whereas the 2015 earthquake made cracks on the roof and made the temple tilt even worse. It has since been restored.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Once, in moonshine, a beautiful woman, Hemavsti, was bathing in Lake Rati, when Chandra descended from the sky and embraced her. Later, she gave birth to a son, who became the first ruler of the Chandella lineage.

Between 900 and 1050 A.D., 85 stone temples were erected in Khajuraho, whose friezes and sculptures depict many aspects of life in those days. Numerous sculptures show women in challenging positions, their hips and breasts accentuated. They possibly depict apsaras, supernatural female beings, who are superb in the art of dancing. They are often depicted dancing to music, delivered by Gandharvas, court musicians of the rain god Indra. They entertain and sometimes seduce gods and men. Other sculptures depict mithuna, couples in intercourse.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bhima managed to kill Hadimb, and, as she had vowed, Hadimba married him. Later, the local people regarded her as a goddess, an incarnation of the supreme Mother Goddess Devi.

The Hadimba Temple in Manali was erected in 1553 over a cave in a huge rock, where Hadimba supposedly meditated. Later, this rock was worshipped as an image of the deity.

 

 

 

 

 

Originally, only male gods existed in the Aryan pantheon, but at an early stage, the female aspects, or energies, of these gods, called shakti, became an important part of worship. In daily use, this shakti is personified, becoming the ’wife’ of the deity in question.

Worship of gods, called puja, takes place through prayer and offering at statues or images of the gods, which are found everywhere in streets, temples, and private homes.

Below, the most important deities of the Hindu pantheon are presented.

 

Saraswati is Brahma’s shakti (female aspect). She is depicted with four arms, often sitting on her mount, a swan. She is the goddess of learning, wisdom, and music, mostly worshipped by students. Many homes have pictures of her, in which she is playing on her string instrument, the veena.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Agni now approached Krishna and Arjuna (one of the Pandava brothers) to ask for their help in his stupendous task, to which they readily agreed. Their task was to prevent any of the inhabitants of the forest from escaping the fire.

Now Agni set fire to the forest, which soon burned with an immense force. The water in ponds and lakes began boiling, killing all creatures. Birds that tried to escape were pierced by Arjuna’s arrows.

The rain god Indra, who was the protector of the forest, began pelting the forest with showers, which, however, dried up in mid-air due to the intense heat.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vishnu is usually depicted with four arms, sitting, lying, or standing on a lotus flower, or on Shesha. He holds a conch in one of his hands, pointing it towards the sea, where all creation began.

Vishnu represents the positive and preserving aspects, protecting humans and gods against demons and other evil forces. For this reason, he has assumed nine other forms, so-called avatars. According to Hindu mythology, the tenth avatar, Kalki – a white horse with the head of a goat – will soon emerge on Earth, bringing an end to it due to Man’s excessive desire for material goods. A picture of our time?

During religious festivals, or when on a pilgrimage, worshippers of Vishnu, called Vaishnavites, adorn their face with a white figure, shaped like a tuning fork, running from their forehead down the nose.

Lakshmi, Vishnu’s shakti, is the goddess of wealth, happiness, and beauty. She is often depicted on a lotus flower, or holding a lotus in her hand. Lakshmi is the most important deity during Dipavali, or Tihar (popularly called ’Festival of Lamps’). In the evening, during this festival, countless small oil lamps illuminate streets and houses, and long rows of lamps lead to the entrance of houses, so that Lakshmi can find her way to the family cash box and fill it up.

The mount of Vishnu and Lakshmi is Garuda, part eagle, part human, who is often guarding the entrance to Vishnu temples.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The gods appealed to the supreme god Vishnu for help, and he suggested that they should regain their power by drinking the miraculous amrita, the nectar of immortality, which they could obtain by churning the cosmic milk ocean, thus bringing the jar with amrita to the surface.

However, Vishnu advised the other gods to treat the asuras diplomatically by suggesting them to jointly churn the ocean. When the amrita was brought to the surface, Vishnu would ensure that the gods got hold of it.

The asuras readily agreed to participate in the churning. To perform this stupendous task, the gods and the asuras uprooted the mountain Mandara, placed it upside down in the ocean, and coiled the giant, many-headed naga (serpent) Vasuki around it. By pulling alternately at each end of Vasuki, the mountain would act as a gigantic churn, thus bringing the amrita to the surface.

The mountain, however, began sinking into the ocean floor, causing Vishnu to assume the shape of a giant, named Kurma, half man, half turtle. He then dove to the bottom of the sea, where he placed Mandara on his back, thus preventing the mountain from sinking.

Finally, the jar with amrita surfaced, whereupon a fierce battle between the gods and the asuras ensued, the latter grabbing the jar and running away with it.

Again, the gods appealed to Vishnu, who assumed the form of a new avatar, Mohini, a beautiful goddess, who seduced the asuras and managed to get hold of the jar of amrita, thus preventing evil from becoming eternal, and preserving the good.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rama knew of no higher law than to obey his father, and he spent his exile wandering about in the forests with his chosen one, Sita, and his half-brother, Lakshmana.

One day, Sita was abducted by Ravana, a 10-headed and 20-armed demon king from Sri Lanka. Hanuman, leader of the monkey army, which supported Rama, went to Sri Lanka to negotiate Sita’s release, but Ravana’s soldiers tied a rag, soaked in oil, to his tail and set fire to it. This was noticed by the god of fire, Agni, who protected Hanuman from the heat, while the flaming tail, in retaliation, set many houses on fire. An enormous leap brought Hanuman back to India.

During the final battle, Rama managed to kill the evil demon, and Sita was released. When the 14 years of exile had passed, Rama went home and assumed his throne.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Due to the great deeds, performed by the monkey army in the Ramayana, monkeys are considered sacred, and troops of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), bonnet macaques (M. radiata), or grey langurs (Semnopithecus) often live around temples, where part of their diet is rice, sweets, or other edible offerings.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Krishna grew up with a herdsman, well protected against a cruel king, Kansa, who was killing male children, as a fortune teller had warned him that he would be overthrown by a young man. However, a divine voice warned Krishna, who took shelter with the herdsman. When he had reached manhood, he killed the evil king and liberated the people.

Krishna is one of the main characters in the great epic Mahabharata, which describes a conflict over the throne between the five Pandava brothers and their cousins. In a passage of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita (’The Sublime Song’), Krishna is the charioteer of one of the Pandava princes, Arjuna, trying to convince the prince that he must fight for honour and power, even against relatives.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

He is often depicted performing a savage dance, his four arms flailing in dynamic positions. His hair is tied in a knot, which is also seen among many of his followers, called Shaivites. A third eye on his forehead is able to behold what is hidden for humans. His forehead is adorned with three horizontal lines – a pattern, which his followers also use. In one of his hands, he carries a trisul (trident).

Shiva is also connected with cremation platforms, where he dashes about, smeared in ashes. For this reason, Shaivites often smear themselves in ashes and dust.

Shiva’s mount is a great bull, Nandi. Sculptures, depicting this bull, is often placed in front of Shiva temples as a guardian.

Shiva’s shakti is known by various names, including Devi (the Great Mother Goddess), Durga, Parvati, Sati, Uma, and Kali. In the form Durga, she is often depicted riding on a tiger or a lion.

A lingam is a phallus-shaped stone, representing Shiva as the fertility god. Such lingams are often placed on a yoni, a carved, flat stone, which resembles a stylized vagina, representing Devi. Such sculptures, called linga-yonis, which symbolize the unification of Shiva and Devi, are often placed outside Shiva temples.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Now Durga went into action. Riding on her lion, she attacked Mahishasura, who changed into a huge buffalo, then into a lion. Durga sliced off his head, but he then changed into an elephant, whereupon Durga cut off his trunk. In spite of the demon hurling large mountains at the goddess, she managed to kill him with her spear.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In temples dedicated to Kali, a daily offering of blood is made. In former days, certain Kali sects sacrificed humans, but today billygoats and roosters are the most common offerings. Kali worship mainly takes place in West Bengal, and the capital of this state, Kolkata, formerly called Kalikata, is named after this goddess.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

There are various legends as to how Ganesh got his elephant-head. According to one, it happened in this way:

One day, when Shiva was away on a longer journey, Parvati wished to take a bath. She created a young man from clay to guard outside the house, while she was having her bath, ordering him not to let anybody enter the house.

Shortly after, Shiva returned from his journey, and the young man told him not to enter the house, as he was ordered. This made the fierce-tempered god so furious that he chopped off the young man’s head. However, this deed made Parvati so angry that she threatened to destroy the universe, unless Shiva restored the young man’s head to his body. Sadly, his head had been destroyed, so Shiva ordered a servant to go outside the house and take the head of the first one he would meet. This happened to be an elephant, and the servant – taking his master’s order literally – ordered the elephant to hand over his head.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

All Hindus hope for a better life in their next reincarnation. Whether you are reborn as an animal or a human, rich or poor, is determined by your karma – a result of your deeds in your former life. Broadly speaking, karma is a reckoning of your good and evil deeds. If you have performed more good than evil, you are reborn in a higher caste, and if you have done more evil than good, you are reborn in a lower caste, as a dalit, or as an animal.

The final goal of an orthodox Hindu, however, is to completely avoid being reborn, obtaining moksha – a state, in which you have no wishes or desires (corresponding to the nirvana of Buddhism). The best way to obtain moksha is through ritual offerings, and through recognition without ulterior motives.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hinduism had an enormous influence on the civilizations of Southeast Asia. Brahmins probably travelled with Indian merchants, and many were patronized by rulers who converted to Hinduism, hereby giving rise to numerous Hindu empires in Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and parts of the Philippine archipelago.

Over the years, in most of these former Hindu kingdoms, Hinduism was replaced by Islam or Buddhism. Hinduism is still the major religion on Bali, but in most other places, only minor Hindu communities exist today, mainly descendants of Indian settlers, especially Tamils.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

For Vaishnavites (followers of Vishnu), the Muktinath Temple in Mustang, central Nepal, is an especially auspicious place to change your janai. During Janai Purnima, thousands of pilgrims are crowding around this temple.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

My ‘colourful’ adventures during this festival is related on the page Travel episodes – India 1991: Attending Hindu festivals in Rajasthan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bisket means ‘serpent killer’. According to legend, a king of Bhaktapur had but one daughter, who had a mighty appetite on lovers. Every night, she wanted a new one, and, mysteriously, he was always found dead in the bed in the morning. Many families mourned their lost sons.

A young prince, visiting the town, heard about the misery. He offered to take over the role as lover, bringing his sword to the bedroom of the princess. When she had fallen asleep, he kept awake. He observed two thin threads, coming out of the nostrils of the princess, transforming into two monstrous serpents. They attacked the prince who killed them with his sword.

In the morning, when the king’s servants came to remove the dead prince, they saw him, to their surprise, sitting calmly on the bed, talking to the princess. The dead serpents were tied to a tall pole, which was erected on one of the town squares. The prince now married the princess, and the king announced that the event should be celebrated every year.

He ordered a tall chariot to be built, housing a statue of the goddess Bhadra Kali, so that she might also have a look at the dead serpents. Bhadra Kali is the female aspect of Kalo Bhairab, the name of Shiva among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley. Later, an even larger chariot was built to house Kalo Bhairab. The prow was high and curved, symblosing the serpent god. A small brass face of the betala, Kalo Bhairab’s servant, was tied to the prow.

Nowadays, some days before the New Year, Kalo Bhairab and Bhadra Kali are placed in their heavy chariots, which are pulled to the square Taumadi Tole by many men, using strong ropes. The chariots are painted and adorned, and the betala image is tied to the tall prow. During these preparations, people bring offerings to the chariots.

On New Year’s Day, a lot of boys climb the chariot of Kalo Bhairab, which is heaved to a steep road, leading down to Khalna Tole, nær the Hanumante River. On each side of the road is a drainage canal, into which the wheels of the chariot fit. Now the men push and pull the wheels of the chariot into these canals. Slowly, the wheels start turning, the entire chariot is swaying, and suddenly it disappears down the road, full speed. At the end of the road is a sandy area, where the chariot comes to a stop. Now the smaller chariot of Bhadra Kali goes through a similar process.

On Khalna Tole lies a 20 m tall pole, to which two banners, symbolizing the dead serpents, are tied. Now this pole has to be erected – a dangerous task. It has sometimes fallen, killing several people, which is regarded as a bad omen for the coming year.

Thousands of people arrive to bring offerings to Kalo Bhairab and Bhadra Kali – roosters, whose blood is smeared onto the betala, and also rice, flowers, sacred water, and money. Men gather to play music, and people march in processions to temples near the raised pole and along the river.

In the afternoon, the pole is taken down again – yet another dangerous task. Two teams of men pull from either side, competing to be the team to topple the pole. When the pole is swaying, people scatter in all directions. Finally, it falls with a huge crash, symbolizing that the previous year has come to an end, and with that the two evil serpents.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The festival is described in detail on the page Travel episodes – Malaysia 1985: Thaipusam – a Hindu festival.