Mammals in the Indian Subcontinent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tibet (called Xizang by the Chinese), Qinghai, and Xinjiang are treated as separate areas. The term ‘western China’ indicates Chinese territories just east of Tibet and Qinghai. The term ‘south-western China’ includes the provinces Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan.

As is obvious from most of the pictures below, I like to show the animals in their natural surroundings, or studies of their behaviour.

In case you find any errors on this page, I would be grateful to receive an email. You may use the address at the bottom of the page.

 

 

 

 

 

Many species of antelope are presented on the page Animals – Mammals: Antelopes.

 

Formerly, this gorgeous animal was distributed all over plains and semi-deserts in India and Pakistan, but uncontrolled hunting by British and Indian ‘sportsmen’ (as they were fond of calling themselves), and competition from grazing cattle, goats and sheep, took their toll.

The blackbuck disappeared completely from Pakistan, and from most of India. Larger herds survived only in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, mainly because the animals were protected by the Bishnoi and other local peoples. Traditionally, they protect all wild animals, even allowing them to graze in their fields of wheat and lentils. Thanks to their protection of the blackbuck, biologists have been able to re-introduce the species to many locations in India.

The blackbuck also plays a role in Hindu mythology, where the chariot of the moon god Chandrama is pulled by this animal.

The specific name is derived from the Latin cervus (‘deer’) and capra (‘she-goat’), thus ‘deer-goat’.

At the outskirts of the town of Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, a huge sculpture, measuring c. 15 by 30 m, has been carved into two boulders. The main theme of this sculpture, which has been dubbed The Descent of the Ganges, is an event in the Hindu epic Mahabharatha. Bhagiratha was a great king, doing penance for a thousand years to obtain the release of his 60,000 great-uncles from the curse of Saint Kapila, eventually leading to the descent of the goddess Ganga to Earth, in the form of River Ganges. However, many other themes have been included in the sculpture, including animals like elephants, cats, and blackbuck.

My difficulties to obtain permission to photograph blackbuck in Tal Chapar Wildlife Sanctuary are related on the page Travel episodes – India 1979: Hunting blackbuck with camera.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The name nilgai is Hindi, meaning ‘blue cow’, which refers to the slate-coloured, slightly bluish coat of the male, and to its similarity to the sacred cow. For the latter reason, the nilgai is protected by devout Hindus and has thus escaped the fate of many other animals in India, which are on the brink of extinction, such as the tiger (below), the lion (Panthera leo), and the blackbuck (above). The coat of females and young animals is a pale sandy brown. Both sexes have a white throat patch.

The scientific name of this antelope is quite peculiar. It is derived from four Greek words, bous (‘cow’), elaphos (‘deer’), tragos (‘goat’), and kamelos (‘camel’). The name was applied by Prussian naturalist Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811), to whom this antelope apparently resembled a mixture of these four animals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek boubalos, the classical word for buffaloes.

 

The specific name is the Hindi name of this animal, also spelled arni.

 

 

 

 

 

The main difference between the two lies in the shape of the horns, which in the wild species are massive, spreading out sideways almost horizontally, only curving at the tip, whereas the horns of the domestic animals are smaller, curved almost from the base.

Traditionally, the water buffaloes, which live in the wild in several national parks in Sri Lanka, were regarded as wild buffaloes, but in all probability they descended from feral domestic buffaloes, as their horns are smaller than those of the genuine wild buffaloes in Assam.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Durga and other Hindu gods are described on the page Religion: Hinduism.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for a she-goat. A billy-goat was called caper.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, the genus was larger, but 4 species have been transferred to the genus Eudorcas and 3 to Nanger.

 

Six subspecies are recognized, some of which are regarded as full species by some authorities: The Deccan chinkara, subspecies bennettii, is distributed from the Gangetic Plain southwards to Andhra Pradesh, the Gujarat chinkara, ssp. christii, from southern Pakistan eastwards to Rajasthan and Gujarat, the Salt Range gazelle, ssp. salinarum, in eastern Pakistan and north-western India, the Kennion or Baluchistan gazelle, ssp. fuscifrons, in eastern Iran, southern Afghanistan, southern Pakistan, and Rajasthan, the Jebeer gazelle, ssp. shikari, in north-eastern Iran, and the Bushehr gazelle, ssp. karamii, in a small area near Bushehr, north-eastern Iran.

Populations of this gazelle have been severely reduced by hunting. The Iranian and Pakistani populations are scattered and fragmented, and it may be extinct in Afghanistan. The stronghold of the species is India, with an estimated 100,000 individuals, of which about 80,000 live in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

The specific name may refer to English physician and naturalist George Bennett (1804-1893), who travelled widely between 1828 and 1835. Later, he emigrated to Australia, where he held a number of posts, including president of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Elsewhere, this species has been introduced as a hunting object, including New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa. In these countries numbers of tahrs have exploded, as they have no natural enemies here, and they have become a serious threat to the local environment through overgrazing.

In 1826, English artist, naturalist, antiquary, illustrator, soldier, and spy, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith (1776-1859) named this animal Capra jemlahica, meaning ‘the goat from Himalaya’. However, in 1841, the outstanding British naturalist and ethnologist Brian Houghton Hodgson (1801-1894) renamed it Hemitragus jemlahicus, derived from Ancient Greek hemi (‘half’) and tragos (‘goat’), thus ‘goat-like’. Apparently, he found that this animal was not really a goat. Today, however, genetic research has revealed that it is in fact a goat.

A stunning encounter with this animal is related on the page Travel episodes – India 2008: Mountain goats and frozen flowers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, it was placed in the genus Hemitragus, together with the Himalayan tahr (above) and the Arabian tahr (H. jayakari, today called Arabitragus jayakari). However, genetic research has shown that it is more closely related to sheep of the genus Ovis than to the other tahrs, and, consequently, it was moved to a separate genus.

The last part of the generic name is derived from Ancient Greek tragos (‘goat’), thus ‘the goat from the Nilgiri Hills’. The specific name is likewise from Ancient Greek, from hyle (‘forest’) and Krios, one of the Titans, son of Uranus and Gaia.

Eravikulam National Park, Kerala, where the pictures below were taken, is a stronghold of the Nilgiri tahr, housing an estimated 800-900 individuals, app. one-fourth of the total population.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These horns have given rise all names of this animal. The generic name is from the Greek tetra (‘four’) and keras (‘horn’), whereas the specific name is from the Latin quattuor (‘four’) and cornu (‘horn’). The Hindi name chowsingha is derived from chaar (‘four’) and siing (‘horn’).

Three subspecies have been described, quadricornis, which is distributed in most of the Indian Peninsula, subquadricornutus, which is found in southern India, and iodes, which is restricted to southern Nepal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The latter evolved into a large number of families, of which the Canidae, about 12 mio. years ago, split into three groups:

Recently, two species of jackals, the black-backed (formerly C. mesomelas) and the side-striped (formerly C. adustus), have been moved to a separate genus, Lupulella.

 

In north-western India, the ranges of the subspecies aureus and indica overlap.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name stems from the word makaku, plural of kaku, a West African Bantu name for a species of mangabey. In Portuguese, makaku became macaco, and in French macaque, the latter adopted by the British. In 1798, French taxonomist Bernard Germain de Lacépède (1756-1825) applied this word of African origin, in the form Macaca, to an almost exclusively Asian group of monkeys, presumably because he was familiar with the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) – the only species of the group outside Asia, living in north-western Africa and on the Rock of Gibraltar, southern Spain. (Source: itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003458.html)

 

It generally lives in forests at altitudes between 200 and 2,000 m, but may be observed down to sea level in Bangladesh, and it occasionally strays to high mountains, sometimes as high as 4,000 m. It is declining in many places due to hunting and habitat fragmentation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its fur is mainly brown, with yellowish-orange hind parts, and the tail is rather short, 20-30 cm. This monkey lives in very diverse habitats, from semi-desert via various forest types to temple groves and cities, from the lowland up to altitudes around 2,500 m.

Following a strong decline due to felling of forest, combined with export of many animals for medical research, the rhesus monkey is now expanding in India, with an estimated population of 500,000 individuals, or more. This expansion is mainly due to the fact that it has adapted to a life in cities.

The size of a territory of a typical troop of rhesus monkeys has been measured at up to 16 km² in montane forest, and 1-3 km² in other types of forest, whereas in Kolkata, a troop of 62 individuals was studied, thriving successfully in an area of less than 4 hectares, in the centre of this metropolis.

In some areas, especially in Laos and Vietnam, the species is hunted for food, and habitat destruction has also affected populations locally in Indochina.

In the great Hindu epic Ramayana, the monkey army, led by Hanuman, plays a significant role, and for this reason monkeys are regarded as sacred animals among devout Hindus. Troops of rhesus monkeys, bonnet macaques (below), and northern plains langurs (below) often live around temples, where part of their diet consists of rice, sweets, or other edibles, brought as offerings to the gods.

Examples of such temples are Pashupatinath, a Hindu temple on the shores of the Bagmati River, Kathmandu, the Manakamana Kali Temple in central Nepal, and the great Buddhist stupa Swayambhunath in Kathmandu, which also contains Hindu shrines.

The role of the monkey army in Ramayana is described on the page Animals – Mammals: Monkeys and apes.

In the West, the rhesus monkey has become well-known due to its usage in medical research, which detected the rhesus factor, an inherited antigen in the blood of humans.

The specific name is of unknown origin. The common name may refer to a person in Greek mythology, King Rhesus of Thrace, who sided with the Trojans during the Trojan War, related in the Iliad.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is very common, locally abundant, living in all forest types, scrubland, plantations, agricultural lands, and urban areas. It is usually found below 2,000 m altitude, occasionally up to 2,600 m. As it often feeds in agricultural areas, conflicts with humans is an increasing problem. It is locally hunted, and many are caught for research, as well as for street performing.

Whereas the temple monkeys in northern India are mainly rhesus monkeys, this role is taken over by bonnet macaques in southern Indian temples.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The lion-tailed macaque is endemic to rainforests of the southern part of the Western Ghats, in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. Although it is distributed in a huge area, the factual area of occupancy is small, as its habitat has been severely fragmented due to establishment of agricultural areas and plantations of tea, coffee, cardamom, and eucalyptus.

The total population of this animal is estimated at less than 4,000 individuals, made up of 47 isolated sub-populations. In one location, the Kodagu District, Karnataka, the species was formerly highly threatened by hunting for food. In later years, the population seems to have become stabilized due to better protection measures.

The specific name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek Seilenos, in Greek mythology tutor of the wine god Dionysus.

The pictures below are all from the Puthutottam Forest, Tamil Nadu, where a troop of lion-tailed macaques have become accustomed to people, as they are often being fed by tourists.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It lives in a variety of forest types, from sea level up to about 2,100 m. The distribution areas of all three subspecies are very fragmented, and opisthomelas is restricted to an area of less than 500 km², with only a fifth of this area actually occupied by the animals. The chief threat to this species is habitat loss due to establishment of plantations and agricultural lands. Many are shot, as they are doing considerable damage to crops.

The toque macaque is still widely distributed, but the population may have declined by more than 50% since 1975.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘from China’. When Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) named the species in 1771, he must have been misinformed about the origin of it. The common name is a kind of hat without brim.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, most authorities consider all langurs on the Indian Subcontinent as belonging to the this genus. Formerly, two species, the Nilgiri langur (S. johnii) of south-western India, and the purple-faced langur (S. vetulus) of Sri Lanka, were regarded as members of the genus Trachypithecus (below),which is today considered to be distributed only in north-eastern India, Bhutan, and Southeast Asia.

The generic name is from the Greek semnos (‘sacred’) and pithekos (‘monkey’), alluding to the sanctity of monkeys to Hindus. The role of the langur in the great Hindu epic Ramayana is described on the page Animals – Mammals: Monkeys and apes.

 

It is quite common, living in a variety of habitats, including forests, scrubland, temple groves, gardens, and towns, up to an altitude of c. 1,700 m. It is locally threatened by habitat loss due to intensified agriculture and fires, and by hunting for food by newly settled people in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Previously, western and southern populations of this species were regarded as a separate species, the southern plains langur (S. dussumieri), but recent genetic research has declared this name invalid.

The specific name refers to an aged Trojan, mentioned in the poem The Aeneid, by Roman poet Publius Vergilius Maro (70-19 B.C.), also known as Virgil. The Aeneid relates the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled after the fall of Troy to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The total number of terai langurs is probably only about 10,000 mature individuals, and the population is slowly declining, mainly due to habitat loss.

The specific name refers to a person in Greek mythology, Prince Hector of Troy, who was one of the foremost fighters among the Trojans during the Trojan War, related in the Iliad.

 

 

 

 

 

Some authorities believe that the black-footed langur is a natural hybrid between the northern plains langur (above) and the Nilgiri langur (below), and others regard it as a subspecies of the former.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek hypo (‘beneath’) and leukos (‘white’), alluding to the whitish belly of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, it was threatened by habitat loss due to mining, dams, and human settlement, and by hunting, but the latter has decreased in recent years due to better protection, and after the introduction of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act in 1972, the population has increased. Since the 1990s, it has been relatively stable, counting around 20,000 individuals.

Previously, this species was placed in the genus Trachypithecus (below).

The specific name honours German missionary and naturalist Christoph Samuel John (1747-1813), who worked for the Danish-Halle Mission in the Danish settlement of Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu, today known as Tarangambadi.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The tufted langur lives in forests, temple groves, gardens, and cultivated areas, in India up to altitudes around 1,200 m, in Sri Lanka up to about 500 m.

The specific name refers to Priam, in Greek mythology the legendary last king of Troy during the Trojan War.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It mainly lives in lush monsoon forests, occasionally found in scrubland and agricultural areas. It is quite common, and the population is fairly stable. Threats include habitat loss through logging, fire, and human encroachment, and it is hunted in Tibet for usage in traditional medicine.

The specific name is derived from Latin, meaning ‘slate-coloured’ – very pale slate, one must say!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The nominate vetulus lives in an area of less than 5,000 km² of rainforest in south-western Sri Lanka, up to an altitude of around 1,000 m. Where its natural habitat has been destroyed, it may live in gardens and plantations, but these habitats offer no long-term survival prospects for it. Subspecies nestor lives in a similar habitat, further north than vetulus, whereas philbricki is found in moister forests of the dry zone. Subspecies monticola is restricted to the montane forests of central Sri Lanka, at elevations between 1,000 and 2,200 m.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This genus, counting 15 species, is distributed from Bhutan and north-eastern India eastwards to the southernmost parts of China, and thence southwards through Indochina to Java, Bali, and Lombok.

The generic name is derived from the Greek trach (‘rough’) and pithekos (‘monkey’), referring to the dense fur of some species in the genus.

 

Its total known range is less than 30,000 km², and much of it is not suitable habitat. The estimated population is less than 1,200 individuals in India and around 4,000 in Bhutan. It has declined by more than 30% in the last 30 years and is expected to decline further due to habitat loss. The population in India is highly fragmented, with the southern population completely separated from northern populations due to the effects of human activities.

The population in Manas National Park, Assam, is threatened by hybridization with a close relative, the capped langur (T. pileatus). Formerly, these two species were separated by rivers, but a number of constructed bridges has now made it easy for them to cross these rivers.

The golden langur was described as late as 1956, but was known much earlier by naturalists, the earliest record being by R.B. Pemberton in a paper from 1838, Report on Bootan Indian Studies Past and Present. However, his work was lost and not rediscovered until the 1970s, and the golden langur was not mentioned again until 1907, when E.O. Shebbeare reported seeing a ’cream-coloured langur’ in the vicinity of Jamduar.

In 1919, a publication stated that a pale yellow-coloured langur was common in a district near Goalpara in Assam, and in 1947, C. G. Baron wrote: ”I saw some white monkeys (…) and, as far as I know, they are an undescribed species. Their entire body and tail are of the same colour – pale silver-golden, not unlike a blonde.”

A number of other sightings roused the interest of celebrated naturalist Edward Pritchard Gee (1904-1968), who observed and photographed three troops of golden langurs in 1953. He reported his results to the Zoological Survey of India, and in 1955 six specimens were collected. The species was described by Dr. H. Khajuria, who named it Presbystis gee, in honour of Mr. Gee.

 

 

 

 

 

Deer live in almost all types of habitats, ranging from tundra to tropical rainforest. They are widely distributed, with native species present in all continents, except Antarctica and Australia. In Africa, however, only a single species is present in the Atlas Mountains. The largest concentration of species is found in Asia.

A larger deer male is called a stag, a female a hind, and a young a kid or a calf. A smaller deer male is called a buck, a female a doe, a young a fawn.

 

 

A medium-sized deer, males may weigh up to 100 kg, whereas the females are much lighter.

The generic and specific names are Latin, referring to an Indian animal, mentioned by Roman philosopher and naturalist Pliny the Elder (c. 23-79 A.D.). The Hindi name chital is derived from Sanskrit citrala (‘spotted’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, the western Eurasian group, called red deer (C. elaphus), has several subspecies in western Europe, the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. However, the taxonomy of this group remains unsettled, and some subspecies may merit specific status, including C. (e.) corsicanus, which lives on Corsica and Sardinia. It may be conspecific with the Barbary stag (C. (e.) barbarus) of north-western Africa.

The eastern Eurasian group includes the wapiti (C. canadensis), which is distributed in north-eastern Asia and North America, Thorold’s or white-lipped deer (C. albirostris), which occurs in eastern Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and north-western Yunnan, and the sika deer (C. nippon), which is found in Japan and Taiwan, at scattered locations in eastern China, and in Ussuriland, south-eastern Siberia.

Some authorities place several South Asian deer in the genus Cervus, others in the genus Rusa, including the sambar deer (below) and the rusa deer (C. timorensis or R. timorensis).

The generic name is the classical Latin term for deer.

 

It is restricted to a few locations in Kashmir and northern Himachal Pradesh. Habitat destruction, competition from grazing livestock, and poaching brought it to the brink of extinction, with only about 150 individuals surviving around 1970. Conservation measures has had the effect that the population is now around 300, but this number is still dangerously low.

The specific name is a corruption of hangul, the local Kashmir name of this deer.

 

 

 

 

 

The weight of a stag is typically around 350 kg, although large specimens may weigh as much as 550 kg. Hinds are smaller, weighing 100-200 kg. Populations of this deer have declined substantially in most areas, mainly due to hunting and habitat destruction. It has been introduced to various countries around the world, including Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.

The common name is derived from Sanskrit sambara (‘deer’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I have not been able to find an explanation regarding the etymology of the generic name. The last part is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek elaphos (‘deer’), and the first part may be derived from Ancient Greek hyle (‘forest’).

 

It ranges from Pakistan in a belt eastwards across the Gangetic Plain of northern India to Bangladesh and Myanmar. It has also been introduced to Australia and Sri Lanka. In Indochina and south-western China, it is replaced by the Indochinese hog deer (H. annamiticus).

The specific name, from Ancient Greek porkos (‘pig’ or ‘hog’), was given in allusion to the hog-like manner, in which it runs through the forest, with the head stretched forward, so that it can duck under obstacles instead of leaping over them.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Males are characterized by their short antlers, often only about 10 cm long. Instead of using their antlers, they tend to fight for territory with their 2-4 cm long upper canines. Where the males have antlers, the females have small bony knobs with tufts of fur.

The generic name is a Latinized form of the Dutch name of these animals, muntjak, which is a corruption of their Sundanese name, mencek. The popular name barking deer was given in allusion to their alarm call, which is reminiscent of a dog’s barking.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a combination of two other genus names, Rusa, which means ‘deer’ in Malay, and Cervus (above).

 

This deer differs from all other Indian species in that the antlers carry more than 3 tines, giving rise to the Hindi name barah singga, meaning ‘twelve-horned’. Mature stags usually have 10-14 tines, but up to 20 has been recorded.

Three subspecies have been described. The western nominate race has splayed hooves, an adaptation to live in flooded grasslands in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Today, a population of about 2,000 live in scattered locations in Uttar Pradesh, and about 2,200 in the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in western Nepal.

The eastern subspecies ranjitsinhi is restricted to the north-eastern state of Assam, where the population was as low as about 700 in 1978. Since then, numbers have been steadily rising due to conservation efforts. In 2016, it was estimated that about 1150 individuals were present in Kaziranga National Park. A few also live in Manas National Park and other protected areas.

The southern subspecies branderi differs from the other subspecies in having hard hooves, an adaptation to live in open forest with an understorey of grass. Formerly, it was restricted to Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, where only about 750 individuals survive. Lately, it has been reintroduced to Satpura Tiger Reserve, likewise in Madhya Pradesh.

The specific name commemorates French naturalist and explorer Alfred Duvaucel (1793-1824), who died in India, only 31 years old. Rumours had it that he was killed by a tiger.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin altus (‘high’) and colo (‘to inhabit’), thus ‘the one that lives at high altitudes’.

 

The specific name was given in honour of Ferdinand Stoliczka (1838-1874), a Czech palaeontologist, geologist, and zoologist, who mainly worked in India. He died of altitude sickness during an expedition to the Karakoram Mountains.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

They were standing head to head, or walking to and fro across the ground in couples, or rocking and swaying all by themselves – scores and scores of elephants.”

 

 

 

All but 3 of these species have since become extinct. One survives in Asia (see below), the other two in Africa. Formerly, the savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) was distributed all over the African continent, with the exception of deserts and rainforest areas. Today, it is restricted to savannas and semi-deserts in eastern and southern Africa. The closely related, but smaller forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) lives in rainforests of Central and West Africa. Some scientists still consider the savanna elephant and the forest elephant as belonging to the same species.

The generic name Elephas is the classical Greek term for elephants.

 

The current range of the Asian elephant is highly fragmented. In 2008, IUCN listed it as endangered due to a 50% population decline over the past 60-75 years. The total population of wild Asian elephants may now be as low as 50,000, or maybe even lower, as this number is an estimate. Researchers believe that about half of the population lives in India. In Sri Lanka, their number is about 6,000 – half as many as in the 1800s. However, Sri Lanka still has the highest density of Asian elephants anywhere.

When bulls are in rut, secretions ooze from a gland on the side of their head, signifying a higher production of male hormones, a condition called musth. During musth, bulls are highly aggressive, and tamed elephants in musth have been known to kill their mahout (trainer), without any apparent reason.

The gestation period is almost two years. A new-born Asian elephant calf weighs about 100 kilos. Six years old, it weighs about a ton.

In former days, bulls with large tusks were the prime target of trophy hunters, and today such animals do not exist. Cows have much smaller tusks than bulls. In the Sri Lankan subspecies, maximus, only 10% of the bulls grow tusks, the cows none at all. This trend has been reinforced by poachers, who select the bulls with the largest tusks.

The Asian elephant was first tamed in the Indus Valley about 5,500 years ago. Since its taming, it has been much utilized by people to pull or carry heavy burdens. In the Hindu Khmer culture of Indochina, royalty and other prominent persons were riding on elephants, when they went on hunting trips to shoot tigers and other big game. Elephants were also much used in Khmer warfare, and during the British colonial wars in India in the 1800’s, elephants hauled heavy cannons to the battlefields.

Until recently, in India and Southeast Asia, elephants were much used in the timber industry to haul out tree trunks from hilly forests. This usage continues today on a small scale in areas, which cannot be entered by heavy vehicles.

In India and Sri Lanka, elaborately adorned elephants are much used in processions during religious festivals.

In some national parks of Asia, elephants are utilized in the tourist industry, carrying people on wildlife watching trips. The elephants move silently through the forest, and tourists can get very close to wild animals, as most of them have no fear of elephants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The European tarpan (Equus ferus) became extinct as late as 1909. This animal and its close relative, Przevalski’s horse (E. ferus ssp. przewalskii), as well as the domestic horse, the donkey, and the African wild ass, are described on the page Animals: Animals as servants of Man, and the three African zebra species are described on the page Nature: Nature’s patterns.

The name Equus is derived from Proto-Indo-European hekwos (‘horse’).

 

Most authorities recognize 6 subspecies, the Mongolian wild ass, ssp. hemionus, which lives in southern Mongolia, the Turkmenian kulan, ssp. kulan, which is restricted to a few locations in Turkmenistan, the Persian onager, ssp. onager, found a few places in Iran, the Indian wild ass, ssp. khur (below), and two extinct subspecies, the Syrian wild ass, ssp. hemippus, which was found in the Middle East, and the European wild ass, ssp. hydruntinus, which was widespread in Europe and western Asia during the Bronze Age. Some recognize a seventh subspecies, the Gobi khulan, ssp. luteus, others regard it as synonymous with hemionus.

The specific name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek hemionos (‘half ass’ or ‘mule’).

 

Khur is the local Gujarati name of this animal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, only scattered herds are found on the Tibetan Plateau, mostly in nature reserves, from the northern outskirts of the Himalaya and Ladakh northwards to the Kunlun Mountains in southern Xinjiang. Almost the entire population lives in Chinese territories, with about 2,500-3,000 individuals in Ladakh, and very few along the northern border of Nepal and Sikkim. The population in Ladakh is increasing due to improved protection measures.

Some authorities regard the kiang as a subspecies of the onager (above).

The specific name is the Tibetan name of the animal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek panther, referring to the black-coated leopards of India, often called panther.

 

 

 

 

 

The leopard has a very wide distribution, from Ussuriland, south-eastern Siberia, southwards through parts of China and Indochina to Indonesia, and thence westwards through the Indian Subcontinent to the Middle East, and most of sub-Saharan Africa. It has adapted to a huge variety of habitats, from tropical jungles to semi-desert and mountains, and even farmland near villages.

The leopard eats a wide variety of prey, including larger animals like various species of deer and antelope, wild boar (Sus scrofa), and warthog (Phacochoerus africanus). Leopards are excellent climbers, and larger prey is usually dragged up into a tree, where they can enjoy their meal in peace, out of reach of lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). If the prey is too large to be dragged up a tree, these animals will often chase away the leopard and eat its prey.

Because of the leopard’s habit of storing larger prey in trees, these kills are often observed, and thus one tends to get a biased view of its diet. In reality, smaller prey like hares, dik-dik antelope, hyraxes, and various birds, including guineafowl and francolins, constitute the main diet of the leopard.

Also other members of the cat family, including serval (Leptailurus serval) and wild cat (Felis silvestris), are occasionally killed and eaten. I even once saw a leopard in Tanzania, feeding on a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), a cat which is almost as big as itself. A cheetah can easily outrun a leopard, so either this particular cheetah was wounded, or the leopard surprised it by jumping on it from a tree.

Near villages, leopards often kill cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs.

While she is away hunting, a mother leopard will hide her kittens in a patch of dense grass or another safe place, to avoid them being eaten by predators. As soon as the kittens are large enough to climb, they take shelter in a tree, where they are safe from most predators.

In Sri Lanka, the leopard was formerly fairly common, and, as opposed to the leopards in India, it had no competition from the tiger (below), as the latter is not found in Sri Lanka. However, due to loss and fragmentation of its habitat, and to some degree also poaching, the population on the island has declined dramatically over the last 50 years. In 2015, it was estimated that between 700 and 950 leopards were living in the wild on the island.

A terrible man-eating leopard, which killed at least a hundred people in north-western India, is described on the page Animals – Mammals: The spotted killer.

The specific name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek pardos (‘male leopard’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, the population of tigers in India has dwindled to somewhere between 2,000 and 3,000, and at least a hundred are still killed annually by poachers to feed the Chinese market, where tiger parts are utilized in traditional medicine: the claws as a sedative for insomnia; the teeth for fever; the fat for leprosy and rheumatism; the nose skin for wounds; the bones for rheumatism and arthritis, dysentery, headache, and stiffness or paralysis of lower back and legs; the eyeballs for epilepsy and malaria; the tail for skin diseases; the bile for meningitis in children; the whiskers for tooth ache; the brain for laziness and pimples; the penis for usage in love potions, and as an aphrodisiac; the faeces for boils and haemorrhoids, and to cure alcoholism.

According to TRAFFIC, which is monitoring international wildlife trade, a minimum of 1,590 tigers were seized by officials between January 2000 and April 2014, aimed at the illegal wildlife trade.

The tiger survives in tiny populations in Ussuriland (south-eastern Siberia) and north-eastern China, in Indochina, and on Sumatra. Historically, it was also found in large parts of Central Asia and China, in Iran, and on Java and Bali, but these populations have been wiped out. The world population may be less than 4,000 mature individuals, and the species is threatened with extinction in the wild.

The specific name is the classical Greek term for the tiger.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In many places, it has been hunted to extinction because of its rich and beautiful fur, and today the global population is estimated at less than 10,000 individuals. This number is expected to decline about 10% by 2040. It is also threatened by habitat destruction.

In Buddhist areas like Ladakh, Sikkim, and Bhutan, and the Khumbu and Dolpo regions in Nepal, hunting is banned, and this rare cat here has safe havens, where it can prey on species like bharal (Pseudois nayaur, see above), urial (Ovis vignei), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus, see above), and alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster, see below).

For many years, the snow leopard was regarded as the sole member of the genus Uncia. However, genetic research has revealed that it is closely related to the large cats of the genus Panthera. The name uncia is derived from Old English ounce, ultimately from Ancient Greek lynx, originally alluding to the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), but over time being used for the snow leopard as well as the cougar (Puma concolor).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The word mongoose is a corruption of mungus, the Hindi term for these animals.

In former days, 6 species of mongoose-like carnivores in Madagascar were included in this family, but have since been moved to the family Eupleridae, which is endemic to Madagascar.

 

The generic name was applied in 1836 by British naturalist and ethnologist Brian Houghton Hodgson (1801-1894) as the specific name of the crab-eating mongoose (U. urva), and as the generic name the following year. It is possibly a local Nepalese name for this animal.

 

To control populations of rats and other rodents, it was formerly introduced to many parts of the world, mostly small islands. In most places, however, it has had a negative impact on ground-nesting birds and lizards, and it is often able to out-compete smaller local carnivores. Today, it is considered to be among the world’s one hundred worst invasive species by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature).

The specific name is derived from the Latin punctatus (‘punctuated’ or ‘dotted’) and aurum (‘gold’), thus ‘with golden dots’, alluding to its coat, whose brownish hairs have golden points.

The small Indian mongoose was once regarded as a subspecies of the Javan mongoose (U. javanica), which lives in Indochina and Malaysia, and on the islands Hainan, Sumatra, and Java. However, genetic research has concluded that they are distinct species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“What is the matter?” asked Rikki-tikki.

“We are very miserable,” said Darzee. “One of our babies fell out of the nest yesterday, and Nag ate him.”

“Hm!” said Rikki-tikki, “that is very sad – but I am a stranger here. Who is Nag?”

Darzee and his wife only cowered down in the nest without answering, for from the thick grass at the foot of the bush there came a low hiss – a horrid cold sound that made Rikki-tikki jump back two clear feet. Then inch by inch out of the grass rose up the head and spread hood of Nag, the big black cobra, and he was five feet long from tongue to tail. When he had lifted one-third of himself clear of the ground, he stayed balancing to and fro exactly as a dandelion-tuft balances in the wind, and he looked at Rikki-tikki with the wicked snake’s eyes that never change their expression, whatever the snake may be thinking of.

”Who is Nag?” said he. “I am Nag. The great god Brahm put his mark upon all our people, when the first cobra spread his hood to keep the sun off Brahm as he slept. Look, and be afraid!”

He spread out his hood more than ever, and Rikki-tikki saw the spectacle-mark on the back of it that looks exactly like the eye part of a hook-and-eye fastening. He was afraid for the minute; but it is impossible for a mongoose to stay frightened for any length of time, and though Rikki-tikki had never met a live cobra before, his mother had fed him on dead ones, and he knew that all a grown mongoose’s business in life was to fight and eat snakes. Nag knew that too, and at the bottom of his cold heart he was afraid.

“Well,” said Rikki-tikki, and his tail began to fluff up again, “marks or no marks, do you think it is right for you to eat fledglings out of a nest?”

Nag was thinking to himself, and watching the least little movement in the grass behind Rikki-tikki. He knew that mongooses in the garden meant death sooner or later for him and his family, but he wanted to get Rikki-tikki off his guard. So he dropped his head a little, and put it on one side.

“Let us talk,” he said. “You eat eggs. Why should not I eat birds?”

“Behind you! Look behind you!” sang Darzee.

Rikki-tikki knew better than to waste time in staring. He jumped up in the air as high as he could go, and just under him whizzed by the head of Nagaina, Nag’s wicked wife. She had crept up behind him, as he was talking, to make an end of him; and he heard her savage hiss as the stroke missed. He came down almost across her back, and if he had been an old mongoose he would have know that then was the time to break her back with one bite; but he was afraid of the terrible lashing return-stroke of the cobra. He bit, indeed, but did not bite long enough, and he jumped clear of the whisking tail, leaving Nagaina torn and angry.

“Wicked, wicked Darzee!” said Nag, lashing up as high as he could reach toward the nest in the thornbush; but Darzee had built it out of reach of snakes, and it only swayed to and fro.”

 

 

 

The specific name honours English naturalist George Edwards (1694-1773), often called ‘the father of British ornithology’. Over a period of 21 years, from 1743 to 1764, he published 7 volumes with descriptions and hand-coloured etchings of 317 foreign birds and a few other animals. The first 4 volumes were titled A Natural History of Uncommon Birds, the remaining 3 Gleanings of Natural History.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I have not been able to find out which Smith the specific name refers to.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for hares.

 

Habitats include open forests, shrubberies, grassland, deserts, wasteland, and cultivated areas. In the Himalaya, it has been observed up to elevations around 4,500 m.

The Indian hare varies quite a lot between the subspecies. The black-necked hare, ssp. nigricollis, which is found in southern India and Sri Lanka, has a black patch on the hind neck, and its tail is black above. The neck of ssp. ruficaudatus is grey, and the tail is brown above. The colour of ssp. dayanus, which lives in deserts, is sandy-yellow.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unlike deer, they have no antlers, but the male possesses long canines, used during territorial fights with other males. He also has a musk gland, with which he marks his territory. This gland has been utilized in traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine for more than 5,000 years. It is estimated that musk is currently being used in as many as 400 Chinese and Korean traditional remedies, employed in treatment of disorders of the nervous system, blood circulation, heart, and lungs. The musk is also reported to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-histaminic, stimulating, and sedative properties. In India, it has been used as an aphrodisiac for thousands of years.

In 747, armies of the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the First Tibetan Empire, ruled by Songtsan Gampo (c. 604-650), clashed on the banks of the famous Oxus River, now called Amu Darya, in what is today the Wakhan Corridor of north-eastern Afghanistan. The outcome of this battle would decide, which empire was in control of the route, leading through the Kingdom of Bolor, and over the Darkot Pass (4703 m) into the Indus Valley – an important branch on the ancient trading route of Central Asia, the Silk Road. Who controlled this pass, controlled the export of musk glands from the north-western part of the Indian Subcontinent – a commodity, which was worth 30 times its weight in silver. Incidentally, the Chinese army won the battle.

The musk has also been widely used in the perfume industry for thousands of years.

Several musk deer species are severely threatened due to excessive hunting of the males. According to TRAFFIC, which is monitoring international wildlife trade, and WWF (Worldwide Fund for Nature), 17,000-20,000 musk deer males are killed annually, in Russia alone, to supply the illegal trade in glands. (Source: National Geographic News, 2004)

 

In many parts of the Himalaya, where Buddhism is the dominating religion, populations are stable, as killing of animals is banned in these areas. One such area is the Khumbu region of eastern Nepal, where this animal is fairly common and rather confiding, as the local Buddhist Sherpas do not harm any wild animals.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek khrysos (‘golden’) and gaster (‘belly’), thus ‘golden-bellied’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The family name is derived from the Latin mus (genitive muris), meaning ‘mouse’.

 

The generic name is the Medieval Latin term for rats, ultimately from Proto-Germanic rattaz (‘rat’).

 

Formerly, the black rat was a serious pest, consuming huge amounts of cereals and other food items. Furthermore, it spread various diseases among humans. During the Middle Ages, rat fleas were carrying bubonic plague, which in some places reduced the human population by 50 to 75%. This much feared disease was aptly named The Black Death.

The brown rat spread throughout the world at a later stage than the black rat. It is a much stronger and more adaptable species, and the black rat has now been expelled from many of its former strongholds by its more aggressive sister species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is distributed in a huge area, from the Indian Peninsula eastwards to southern China, and thence southwards through Indochina and Malaysia to Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. An isolated population is found in the marshes of southern Iraq and south-western Iran.

It lives in freshwater habitats, but may occasionally visit salt water. It is threatened by habitat loss, pollution of wetlands, and poaching for the illegal wildlife trade.

The populations in southern Pakistan and Iraq/Iran are regarded as separate subspecies, named sindica and maxwelli, respectively. The latter was named for British author Gavin Maxwell (1914-1969), who got a cub, when he visited the famous explorer Wilfred Thesiger (1910-2003) in the marshes of southern Iraq in 1956.

In southern Bangladesh, smooth-coated otters are used for commercial fishing. They are bred in captivity and trained to chase fish into fishing nets. By 2011, this fishing technique was used by about 300 fishermen, with an additional 2,000 people indirectly dependent on the technique for their livelihood. (Source: M.M. Feeroz, S. Begum & M.K. Hasan 2011. Fishing with Otters: a Traditional Conservation Practice in Bangladesh. IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin 28A, Proceedings of XIth International Otter Colloquium)

The specific name is derived from the Latin perspicillum (‘spectacles’) and the ending atus, thus ‘spectacled’, or, more appropriately, ‘appearing to wear spectacles’, alluding to some smooth-coated otters having a ring of pale skin around the eyes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name ultimately stems from Proto-Indo-European mysdersleh, meaning ‘mouse-grabber’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek pteron (‘wing’) and pous (‘foot’), alluding to the skin of the wing also being attached to the feet.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘middle’. Presumably, it refers to the fact that this is not the largest among the flying foxes – despite the former name giganteus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

All five species are critically endangered due to widespread poaching and habitat loss. Thousands have been killed to meet the insatiable demand for rhino horn in the Far East, where it is ground to powder and used in folk medicine.

Rhino parts have been used as ingredients in traditional Asian medicine for at least 2000 years. Virtually every part of the animal is used: the horn for reducing fever and spasms; the skin for skin diseases; the penis as an aphrodisiac; the bones to treat bone disorders; the blood as a tonic for women with menstrual problems.

In China, powdered horn is regarded as an aphrodisiac. However, chemical analyses have not revealed any active ingredients to suggest that the remedy could be effective in this respect.

In fact, western medical experts tend to discount all claims of any curative power in rhino horn. It is well known that aspirin contains similar properties and produces many of the same results as rhino prescriptions in patients.

Asian rhino horns are more highly prized than African rhino horns, as consumers believe that their smaller size means that they are more concentrated, and therefore more potent.

Formerly, rhino horn was also used for adorning dagger sheaths in Yemen – a practice which may still take place.

 

In the early 1990s, the entire population was estimated at less than 1,900 individuals. Since then, numbers have increased due to conservation measures, and today the population as around 3,500 individuals. The absolute stronghold of the species is Kaziranga National Park in Assam, which holds more than 2,000. Another area with many rhinos is Chitwan National Park in southern Nepal, which holds about 650 individuals.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek rhis (‘nose’) and keras (‘horn’), thus ‘horn on the nose’. The specific name is Latin, derived from unus (‘one’) and‎ cornu (‘horn’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The family name is derived from Sciurus, the Latin name of these animals, in 1758 applied by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) to the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). The word squirrel, which has been in use as early as 1327, is from the Anglo-Norman name esquirel, which is again from the Old French escurel, a corruption of the Latin sciurus, which is derived from Ancient Greek skia (‘shadow’) and oura (‘tail’), thus ‘shadow-tailed’, alluding to the habit of some squirrels to raise their bushy tails over the body, thus creating shade.

Many species of squirrel are presented on the page Animals – Mammals: Squirrels.

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin funis (‘rope’) and‎ ambulo (‘to walk’), thus ‘rope-walker’, alluding to the agility of these animals.

 

Previously, it was regarded as a subspecies of F. sublineatus in southern India, but was upgraded to a separate species in 2012.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘dark’ or ‘dusky’.

 

 

 

 

 

It has been introduced to Madagascar and surrounding islands, and to Australia, where it has become a minor pest.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek pente (‘five’), like the common name referring to 5 whitish stripes, 3 that divide the dark brown fur on the back into 4 parts, and one stripe along each side, slightly paler than the underside.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek petauristes (‘acrobat’), naturally alluding to the elegant gliding of these animals.

 

Previously, it was regarded as a subspecies of the widespread red giant flying squirrel (P. petaurista). However, recent genetic research has split that species into a number of separate species. The white-bellied was also formerly reported eastwards to the Yunnan Province, but eastern Himalayan animals are now recognized as belonging to a recently described separate species, the Yunnan giant flying squirrel (P. yunanensis).

The specific name is derived from the Latin albus (‘white’) and venter (‘belly’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Currently, 3 subspecies are recognized. Subspecies macroura is jet-black above, rump with grizzled appearance, underparts cream-coloured to pale yellow, tail black with a white tip. It is restricted to the central highlands of Sri Lanka, up to elevations around 2,000 m.

Subspecies dandolena is brown above, grizzled with white, underside brownish-cream, rump white, tail dark, frosted with white hairs, forehead and feet black. It is found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, and in India.

Subspecies melanochra is jet-black above, underparts cream-coloured to orange-yellow, tail black, frosted with white hairs. It is distributed in the low-country wet zone of Sri Lanka, and in intermediate zones of the country.

The subspecies vary tremendously, even within a local population, so why it is divided into 3 subspecies is a reasonable question.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek makros, which, strictly speaking, means ‘long’, but is also translated as ‘large’; and oura (‘tail’), thus ‘large-tailed’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Shrews are voracious eaters, some consuming more than their own body weight per day. They feed mainly on insects and other small invertebrates, but also eat various seeds and nuts, and they may occasionally attack other small mammals.

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘mouse-like’ or ‘grey’, i.e. having the colour of a mouse.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for ‘hog’.

 

It is found in the entire Indian Subcontinent, except the highest parts of the Himalaya.

The specific name stems from Proto-Indo-European skreb (‘to scrape’), but in classical Latin it became the term for a sow.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek paradoxos (‘contrary to expectation’) and oura (‘tail’). What it refers to is not clear.

 

In Indonesia, it is threatened by the illegal wildlife trade, as it is essential to the production of the famous kopi luwak, a type of coffee that is made from partially digested coffee fruits, which have been eaten and defecated by the palm civet.

The specific name refers to the Greek mythology, in which the son of Hermes and Aphrodite merged bodies with a naiad (water nymph). The connection to the palm civet is hard to see.