Grasses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A teacher brought his young students, who had grown up in the heart of a city, out to a rice field so that they could learn where the food came from. One of the kids was afraid to step into the field, as he thought he would sink into it.

The teacher heard one of the other kids saying: “Oh no, you don’t have to be afraid! There is cement underneath!”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants are characterized by having hollow stems, except at the nodes, popularly called knees. Each leaf grows from a node, the lower part enclosing the stem and forming a sheath. At the base of the leaf, there may be a membrane, or a ring of hairs, the ligule. The stem is usually circular, sometimes flattened, but never triangular like the sedges (Carex).

The inflorescence may be a spike, consisting of a long row of stalkless spikelets, each with one or several flowers, or a panicle, an often pendent, many-branched inflorescence with stalked spikelets. The stamens are characteristic, the anthers hanging from the end of a very thin, thread-like filament, often pulling it downwards.

The bract that surrounds the seed is called chaff, and in many species a more or less stiff hair, the awn, grows out from the base of the chaff.

On this page, nomenclature largely follows Kew Gardens’ website Plants of the World Online (powo.science.kew.org). Regarding the etymology, I have relied on the website Wiktionary, and on an excellent book by Jens Corneliuson: Växternas namn. Vetenskapliga växtnamns etymologi. Språkligt ursprung och kulturell bakgrund (‘Etymology of scientific plant names’), Wahlström & Widstrand, 1999 (in Swedish).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Most bamboo species rarely blossom, some only flowering at intervals of 65 to 120 years. Mass-flowering is common in many species, and once flowering has taken place, the plants spread the seeds, wither, and die.

Bamboo is of huge value to many cultures, utilized for production of a large number of items (see caption Grasses and Man).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Ancient Greek, originally a term translated as ‘a grass that mules feed on’, possibly couch grass (Elymus repens).

 

The stem is erect, sometimes to 75 cm tall, but usually lower, sheaths smooth, ligules to 2 mm long, shorter than wide, leaves to 10 cm long and 5 mm broad, flat. The panicles grow to 20 cm long and 12 cm wide, widely open, spikelets purplish-brown or greenish.

The specific name is derived from the Latin capillus (‘hair’ or ‘thread’), presumably referring to the very thin stalks in the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

It grows in a variety of habitats, including open woodland, grasslands, roadsides, and waste ground, and as a weed in agricultural areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘bearing stolons’ (runners).

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was a classical Greek term for an unknown grass.

 

It grows in dry places, widely distributed in Europe, Africa, Madagascar, the Middle East, and Central Asia.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek karyon (‘a nut’) and phyllon (‘leaf’). At an early stage, the name karyophyllon was applied by botanists to the clove tree, then called Caryophyllus aromatica (today Syzygium aromaticum). However, the name probably refers to the clove pink (Dianthus caryophyllus), which has grass-like leaves.

The common name alludes to the silvery sheen on the spikelets, before they become dry and turn straw-coloured.

 

 

 

 

 

It also grows in dry areas, found from western and southern Europe eastwards to Turkey and the Caucasus.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘premature’, referring to the early flowering of the plant.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek alopex (‘fox’) and oura (‘tail’), genitive urus, alluding to the shape of the spike.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘equal’ – equal to what is not clear.

 

 

 

 

 

It is partial to humid grasslands, including saline ones, in mountains found up to an elevation of about 1,200 m. It is native to the major part of Europe, eastwards to the Pacific Ocean, southwards to northern Africa, Iran, western Himalaya, and northern China. It has been widely introduced elsewhere as a fodder plant and for erosion control.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek arundo, the classical name of giant reed (Arundo donax, below), but it may also mean ‘reed’ in general, in this case probably alluding to the reed-like leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

This plant, which grows to about 60 cm tall, resembles orange foxtail, but has green spikes, and the sheaths are not inflated. The stem is often bent at the nodes. It is able to reproduce vegetatively by rooting at the nodes.

The specific name is derived from the Latin genu (‘knee’) and culum, a diminutive suffix, thus ‘little knee’, alluding to the bent nodes.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek mys (‘mouse’) and oura (‘tail’), and the Latin oides (‘resembling’), thus ‘resembling a mouse-tail’, alluding to the spike.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘of meadows’.‎

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek anthos (‘flower’) and xanthos (‘yellow’), alluding to the spikes of A. odoratum (below) turning yellow when ageing.

 

The stem is to about 50 cm tall, the leaves often growing outwards horizontally, to a length of 1 m or more.

The specific name is from the Latin niteo (‘shining’ or ‘thriving’), probably alluding to the lush growth of the leaves.

The alternative generic name is derived from Ancient Greek hieros (‘sacred’) and chloe (‘young green shoot’). Because of its fragrance, it was strewn at church doors on saints’ days in northern Europe. It has also been used in France to add flavour to candy, tobacco, soft drinks, and perfumes, and in Poland it has been added to vodka.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘fragrant’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek a (‘not’) and peros (‘mutilated’), i.e. ‘unadulterated’. What it refers to is not clear.

 

It is a common weed in fields with winter cereals.

The specific name is Latin-Italian, meaning ‘twenty spikes’, alluding to the numerous spikes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek arrhenos (‘male’) and atheros (‘bristle’), alluding to the fact that only the male flowers have awns.

 

It is found from Iceland eastwards to the Ural Mountains, southwards to North Africa, Iran, and Kyrgyzstan. It is very common, growing in a wide variety of open habitats, for instance along roads, hedges, fields, and streams. It has been greatly favoured by the increased nitrogen fallout in later years.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘tall’. The common name alludes to its superficial resemblance to the cultivated oat (Avena sativa), described below in the section Grasses and Man.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin term for several reed species with stiff, bamboo-like stems.

 

In western United States it has been extensively planted as a means to control soil erosion, and as a biomass plant, but it often escapes and has become highly invasive in numerous places, especially along rivers, where it often displaces the natural vegetation.

The specific name is the Ancient Greek name of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The stems are slender, often pendent, to 1.2 m tall/long and to 6 mm across, branching from the nodes. Leaf sheaths are longer than the internodes, smooth, blade to 25 cm long and 1.5 cm broad, basal part with long silky hairs. Inflorescence is a panicle, to 30 cm long, pale brown, spikelets to 1 cm long, with 2-5 florets.

The stems are used for making baskets.

Formosa is the old Portuguese name of Taiwan, meaning ‘beautiful’.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin term for the cultivated oat (A. sativa), described below in the section Grasses and Man.

 

The specific name may refer to the long awns, or to the tuft of hairs at their base.

 

 

 

 

 

This plant grows in open areas and is a common weed in fields and plantations, found from sea level up to altitudes around 1,500 m.

It is believed to have originated in Central Asia and has been associated with the cultivation of the common oat (A. sativa) and other cereals since the early Iron Age. Wild oat also has edible seeds, but is unsuitable for cultivation due to the fact that as soon as the kernels are ripe they fall to the ground, as opposed to the cultivated oat.

In former days, wild oat was so numerous that in certain areas it would lower the yield of crops by 40%. In Denmark, it was declared an outlaw in 1956, to be “removed from all cultivated and un-cultivated areas by the owner or the user.”

Before the introduction of chemical herbicides, the plants had to be removed by hand, which was a very time-consuming task. However, it was an advantage that wild oat is often taller than the surrounding crop, making it relatively easy to spot.

Today, wild oat is still is a serious pest in many countries, and as it is highly adaptable to various environments, it has become naturalized in numerous places. It is regarded as being among the world’s worst agricultural weeds. (Sources: D.P. Jones (ed.) 1976. Wild oats in world agriculture. An interpretative review of world literature. Agricultural Research Council. London; and L.G. Holm et al. 1977. The World’s Worst Weeds. Distribution and Biology. University Press of Hawaii)

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘tasteless’ – an odd name, as the seeds are edible. The name is probably derogatory, alluding to the seeds falling off soon after ripening, thus being worthless.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin Avena (‘oat’) and ella, a diminutive suffix, thus ‘small oat’.

 

It is very widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, and is also found in montane areas of southern South America, central parts of Africa, and Indonesia.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘winding’, alluding to the panicle stalks.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Dravidian banbu or Malayan bambu, both local words for bamboo.

 

In stressing conditions, this plant develops short, swollen internodes, hence the popular name Buddha’s Belly – not alluding to the Buddha Sakyamuni, but to the fat-bellied Budai, often called ‘The Laughing Buddha’, who is a bodhisattva. More about this issue is found on the page Religion: Buddhism, and pictures depicting The Laughing Buddha are shown on the page Culture: Wood carvings.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘distended’.

 

 

 

 

 

Many varieties have been created through selection, including var. striata, which has a bright yellow stem with longtudinal green streaks.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek brachys (‘short’) and pous (‘foot’), alluding to the very short-stalked spikelets of these plants.

 

It is partial to shady forests, often growing along trails and forming large populations. It has narrow, drooping, to 15 cm long spikes, with very short-stalked spikelets.

The specific name means ‘growing in forests’, derived from the Latin silva (‘forest’).

 

 

 

 

 

In Ancient Greece, briza was the name of an unknown grass with an intoxicating effect, perhaps a species of Lolium (below), derived from brizo (‘being sleepy’ or ‘nodding from fatigue’). The toxins were not in the grass itself, but in galls or other parasites on the plant.

The English name refers to the dried spikelets, which quiver in even slight breezes. Other popular names include rattle grass and rattlesnake grass.

 

It may grow to a height of 60 cm. Seeds and leaves are edible.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Ancient Greece, the generic name was applied to a grassy weed, presumably wild oat (Avena fatua, see above). The word bromos means ‘noise’, alluding to the panicles rattling in the wind. Why the name was applied to bromes is not clear.

 

The specific name means ‘resembling Hordeum’ (barley, see caption Cereals and sugarcane below). The common name refers to the soft-haired chaffs of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It favours open areas, including grasslands and roadsides. It is native from central and southern Europe eastwards to south-eastern Siberia, southwards to the Mediterranean, Turkey, Pakistan, and southern China, but has become naturalized in many other places, including northern Europe and North America. It is considered an unwanted pest in the United States.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘unarmed’, alluding to the awnless spikelets.

 

 

 

 

 

It is native from the British Isles, Scandinavia, and Spain towards the south-east, across Turkey, the Caucasus, and Iran to the Himalaya.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with many branches’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific and common names are derogatory, probably indicating that this species is worthless in all respects.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This grass is native to the major part of Europe, eastwards across the Middle East and Central Asia to Mongolia, China, and the Himalaya. It has also become naturalized in many areas across the globe, especially in North America, where it often expels native species and has been declared a noxious weed. It grows in various open habitats and is often among the first colonizers of disturbed areas.

The specific name is derived from the Latin tectum (‘roof’). Presumably, when Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) named this plant in 1753, he heard that it may grow on thatched roofs.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greel kalamus (‘reed’) and Agrostis (above).

 

Today, marram grass is found on coastal sand dunes around the world. At some point, it was introduced to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and other places and planted to prevent coastal erosion. However, it has spread beyond control and is now a serious pest along the Pacific coast of North America, and in New Zealand and western Australia, often expelling native plant species.

The specific name, derived from the Latin arena (‘sand’), as well as the former generic name, derived from Ancient Greek ammos (‘sand’) and philos (‘loving’), both allude to its habitat. The English name is adapted from Old Norse maralmr, from mar (‘sea’) and halmr (‘straw’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘slowly becoming grey’, perhaps alluding to the withered inflorescences.

 

 

 

 

 

One of its favourite habitats is littoral meadows, where it is highly invasive, spreading by its underground rhizomes and often expelling other plants.

The specific name is adapted from Ancient Greek epigaios (‘with a creeping rootstock’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek kegchros (‘millet-grass’), alluding to the resemblence of some of these plants to certain types of millet. The name fountain grass alludes to the leaves and seedheads of some members, resembling a spray from the base of the plant.

 

Stems erect, to 1 m tall, leaves erect or drooping, to 45 cm long and 1 cm wide. The inflorescence is a silvery-white spike, densely covered in bristles. Later, the spike turns yellow, and when the seeds ripen it turns brown.

The specific name means ‘resembles Alopecurus’ (above), derived from Ancient Greek alopex (‘fox’), oura (‘tail’), genitive urus, and oides (‘resembling’), thus ‘like a foxtail’, alluding to the spike. Other common names include Chinese fountain grass and dwarf fountain grass.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where foxtail fountain grass is very common.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is native to tropical America, but has become naturalized in most tropical and subtropical areas, easily spreading by its spiny fruits, which attach themselves to almost anything. It grows in many different habitats and is regarded as an agricultural weed in 35 countries.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to northern and eastern Africa, Arabia, and the Near East, but has become naturalized in many other places, and is often regarded as an invasive species, which is a threat to native species. It also tends to increase the risk of wildfires, to which it is well adapted, thus posing a further threat to certain native species.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘bristly’, alluding to the awns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name refers to the goddess Chloris, in Greek mythology the protector of plants.

 

Whatever its origin may be, it has been accidentally introduced to most warmer parts of the world and is regarded as an invasive in a number of countries, including Australia, Korea, Thailand, Cambodia, and India.

It is a common weed in sugarcane and rice fields, which is a serious problem, as it is a host of a number of rice insect pests, including white-backed planthoppers (Sogatella furcifera and Sogatodes pusanus), rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius), rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata), cereal thrips (Haplothrips ganglbaurei and Chirothrips mexicanus), and others.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘bearded’, alluding to the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name stems from Aymara chusque, the name of a bamboo species. Even today, the word survives on several islands in the Caribbean, as the Taino peoples, who once inhabited these islands, originally lived on the mainland, but had to flee.

 

The specific name is a Spanish corruption of cula, the Araucana people’s name of the plant.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek koix, according to Greek scholar and botanist Theophrastos (c. 371 – c. 287 B.C.) the name of an Egyptian palm species, from whose leaves various weaved articles were produced. Why Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) linked the name to this grass genus is anybody’s guess.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘Job’s tears’. This name, as well as the English names Job’s tears, Christ’s tears, David’s tears, Saint Mary’s tears, tear grass, and Chinese pearl barley, refer to the tear-shaped, pearl-like seeds.

In the Old Testament, Job was a pious man of great virtues, who went through much suffering, as a result of Satan challenging God, saying that he was able to make Job curse God. This made God allow Satan to test Job’s piety through various hardships. Job, knowing that he was innocent, concluded that God must be unjust, but remained faithful to him. The Book of Job, 16:20: “Mine eye poureth out tears unto God.”

At an early stage, Job’s tears was introduced to the United States. To the Cherokee tribe, its seeds became known as Cherokee corn beads, being used for adornment since at least the time of the foundation of the Cherokee Nation (1794). During the forced removal of c. 16,000 Cherokee, in 1838, from their home lands in south-eastern U.S. to present-day Oklahoma, an estimated 4,000 died. Legend has it that Cherokee corn beads sprang up along the various migration routes, called ‘The Trail of Tears’, or, in Cherokee, Nunna daul Isunyi (‘The trail where we wept’).

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Spanish cortadera (‘machete’), alluding to the leaves of these grasses, which have very sharp edges.

 

The specific name refers to the Araucanians, a former local tribe in Chile.

 

 

 

 

 

Pampas grass is very adaptable, and a single plant can produce over one million seeds during its lifetime. As a result, it has become invasive in many places, including New Zealand, Florida, California, Hawaii, South Africa, and Spain.

The specific name honours German naturalist Friedrich Sellow (originally Sello) (1789-1831), who stayed in Brazil and Uruguay 1814-31, where he collected a huge number of plants new to science. In 1831, he drowned in Rio Dolce, only 42 years old.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek koryne (‘club’) and phoros (‘bearing’), referring to the shape of the awn.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘slowly becoming grey’, perhaps alluding to the withered inflorescences.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kyon (‘dog’), genitive kynos, and oura (‘tail’), genitive urus, referring to the shape of the spike.

 

It is found in Europe, except Iceland, eastwards to the western part of European Russia, southwards to the Mediterranean and Iran. It has also become naturalized in other parts of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘crested’, alluding to the shape of the spikelet (see picture at the beginning of this page).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek daktylis, derived from daktylos (‘finger’), alluding to a kind of grape with finger-shaped bunches. In a botanical context, the word refers to an inflorescence, which is divided into finger-like sections.

 

It is widely distributed, from Iceland eastwards to central Siberia, southwards to northern Africa, Sri Lanka, China, and Taiwan, but as it is an important fodder plant, it has been widely introduced to temperate and subtropical regions throughout the world. and has become naturalized in many places. In some areas, it is considered an invasive species. In the northern regions, it grows down to sea level, in the southern parts restricted to mountains. In the Himalaya, it may be found at altitudes between 2,500 and 4,000 m.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘up-rolled’, in this case referring to the clustered spikelets.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name honours French surgeon and naturalist Louis Auguste Deschamps (1765-1842). He was physician on board the French frigate L’Esperance, which, with other ships, set sail in 1791 in search of another ship, La Perouse, which had vanished in Oceania. However, the search was in vain, and L’Esperance was also haunted by misfortunes. Of its 119 crew members, 89 died, including the captain, and the ships were seized by the Dutch in Dutch East India (today Indonesia). Deschamps remained in Java until 1802, exploring the local flora and fauna.

 

It grows to about 1.4 m tall, found in various types of grassland, preferably in humid areas. It is very widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, southwards to Mexico, Iran, and China, and it is also found in montane areas of the central parts of Africa, and in eastern Australia.

The specific name is derived from the Latin caespes (‘lump’), in a botanical context referring to a tussock.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek Eleusis, the name of a town, in which initiation rites in a cult centered around the goddesses Demeter and Persephone took place. This cult is believed to have been based on an older agrarian cult.

 

Indian goosegrass, which is possibly a native of warmer areas of Africa and Asia, is considered a “serious weed” in at least 42 countries. Besides being an agricultural weed, it also invades forests margins, grasslands, marshes, river banks, and road sides. Currently, it is listed as invasive in several countries in Europe, Asia, Central and South America, and the Caribbean, and on many islands in the Pacific Ocean. (Sources: cabi.org/isc/datasheet/20675; L.G. Holm et al. 1977. The World’s Worst Weeds. Distribution and Biology. University Press of Hawaii)

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek elymos (‘millet’).

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin canis (‘dog’), a derogatory term, indicating that this grass is worthless to people.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name means ‘creeping’ in Latin, referring to the creeping rhizome, and the common name quick-grass alludes to its fast growth. The former generic name Elytrigia is derived from Ancient Greek eletryon (’cover’) and tryge (’corn crop’), referring to the habit of couch grass to ‘hide’ in crops.

The common name dog’s grass stems from the habit of dogs to chew its leaves in order to procure vomiting. In former days, it was believed that the leaves would cure sick dogs. English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) says: ”If you know it [couch grass] not by this description, watch the dogs when they are sick and they will quickly lead you to it.”

Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.), who was the author of De Materia Medica, five volumes dealing with herbal medicine, asserts that a decoction of the rhizomes is a useful remedy as a diuretic and for bladder stones. English herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) writes: “Although that couch-grasse be an unwelcome guest to fields and gardens, yet his physicke virtues do recompense those hurts; for it openeth the stoppings of the liver and reins without any manifest heat.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Latin, probably meaning ‘grass straw’. The English name is a corruption of the Latin name.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘tall’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is cultivated as an ornamental plant, used for lawns and as groundcover.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘red’, alluding to the reddish spikelets.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic and common names are derived from the Latin vivus (‘living’) and parus (‘to give birth’), thus ‘the one who has living offspring’, alluding to the spikelets sprouting while still on the plant.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek glykeros (‘sweet’), alluding to the edible, sweet grains of these plants.

 

It is found all over Europe, eastwards to the Ural Mountains, southwards to Morocco, Turkey, and Turkmenistan.

In former times, this plant was cultivated for the grains, which were cooked and eaten as a kind of porridge, hence the name ‘manna-grass’.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘floating’, referring to the floating leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to Europe, with the exception of Iceland and the Iberian Peninsula, eastwards to western Siberia, southwards to Kazakhstan and Xinjiang. It has also become naturalized elsewhere, including North America, Australia, and New Zealand, and is regarded as an invasive plant in many areas.

Like the previous species, the seeds are edible, with a sweet taste.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Columbia, sombreros are made from the straw, and in Brazil it is made into trellises for climbing plants (such as beans) and tomatos. The plant was formerly used in traditional medicine.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek gyne (‘woman’) and erion (‘wool’), alluding to the glumes of the spikelets bearing long hairs. The specific name is derived from the Latin sagitta (‘arrow’), referring to the shape of the leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic names is derived from Ancient Greek hesperos (‘western’).

 

It forms small tussocks, stem erect, to 1 m tall, inflorescence to 28 cm long. At maturity, the awn twists into a large spiral, to 20 cm long, giving rise to the popular name needle-and-thread grass, as it sometimes resembles a threaded sewing needle.

The specific name is derived from the Latin coma (‘hair’), alluding to the long, hairy awn.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is distributed in Europe, from Ireland and Portugal eastwards to western Russia and the Caucasus, and from Scandinavia southwards to northern Africa, but has been widely introduced elsewhere as a pasture grass. In North America, it is considered an invasive species.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘woolly’, alluding to the downy stem and leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is distributed in Europe, from Ireland and Portugal eastwards to western Russia, and from Scandinavia southwards to northern Africa and Greece.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘soft’, alluding to the downy stem and nodes.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is classical Latin term for the cultivated barley (H. vulgare), described below in the section Grasses and Man. It is derived from Proto-Italic horzdeom (‘bristly’), alluding to the long, prickly awns of these plants.

 

The stem is erect, to 1 m tall, smooth, leaf sheaths split and hairy, inflorescence a nodding spike, each spikelet having 7 awns, to 8 cm long, with upward-pointing barbs, which easily get attached to an animal fur or people’s clothes, thus spreading the seeds.

In former days, the Kawaiisu people pounded the seeds for food, and they used the entire plant as a tool to rub the skin off yucca stalks. The Chippewa and Potawatomi used the root medicinally.

The specific name is derived from the Latin iuba (‘mane’ or ‘crest’), like the common names alluding to the bushy awns.

 

 

 

 

 

The stem is unbranched, to 40 cm tall, spikes pale green or yellowish, spikelets in groups of 3, awn short, to 2 cm long, pointing outward at maturity.

The specific name is derived from the Latin murus (‘wall’), alluding to the fact that this plant often grows along stone fences and house walls.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name commemorates German physician and botanist Georg Ludwig Koeler (1764-1807), who began botanical studies in 1786. His goal was to write a work named Flora von Deutschland, Frankreich und der Schweiz (‘Flora of Germany, France, and Switzerland’). However, only the chapter on grasses was published. His untimely death during a typhoid epidemic in 1807 put an end to his work.

 

It is distributed from England, Denmark, and the Baltic countries eastwards to eastern Siberia, southwards to the Mediterranean, Iran, and western Himalaya. Previously, it was thought that it also occurred in North America, but today plants here are regarded as a separate species, prairie junegrass (K. macrantha).

The specific name probably alludes to the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

It is a tuft-forming species, growing to 50 cm tall, with pale green leaves and numerous short, ovate inflorescences, which turn buff or white when ripe.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek lagos (‘hare’) and oura (‘tail’), genitive urus, referring to the fluffy inflorescence. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘ovate’, alluding to the shape of the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is an anagram of Elymus, which is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek elymos (‘millet’).

 

Lyme grass is easily identified by the blue-green leaves, to 1 m long and 1.5 cm wide, and the heavyset stem, to 1.5 m tall, with a spike to 30 cm long. The sheath is short, about 1 mm, and hairy along the edge. The plant has many runners and often form large growths.

The seeds are edible when cooked, but are hardly worth the effort, as they are hard to extract from the chaff.

The specific name is derived from the Latin arena (‘sand’), alluding to its habitat.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Indo-European lol (‘making sleepy’ or ‘lull to sleep’). In Ancient Rome, it was the name of a much feared weed, probably poisonous darnel (Lolium temulentum), by Roman poet Publius Vergilius Maro (70-19 B.C.), in English known as Vergil, described as “the evil-bringing Lolium.” It was often infested with fungi that produce a toxic alkaloid, temulin, which causes dizziness, confusion, and blurred vision. The seeds were often ground to powder and mixed with alcohol to enhance the intoxication. Traces of temulin has been found in Egyptian graves from about 2500 B.C.

It may also be this plant that is referred to as tare in Matthew, 13:30: “Let both grow together until the harvest, and in the time of harvest I will say to the reapers: Gather ye together first the tares, and bind them in bundles to burn them; but gather the wheat into my barn.”

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek arundo, the classical name of giant reed (Arundo donax, above), but it may also mean ‘reed’ in general, thus ‘reed-like’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As its name implies, it is a large species, forming loose tufts, stem to 1.5 m tall, sometimes even more, the broad leaves and panicles gracefully arched. At the base of the leaf, conspicuous sickle-shaped, brownish teeth surround the stem.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its native area is probably from southern Europe eastwards to Kazakhstan, southwards to northern Africa, Iran, and western Himalaya. However, it has been cultivated as a fodder plant for centuries, and today it has become naturalized in most parts of the world. In some areas, it is regarded as a noxious weed in fields, and as an invasive species in other habitats.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘many-flowered’.

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to Europe (except Iceland), eastwards to central Siberia, southwards to northern Africa, Iran, and the Himalaya. At an early stage, it was introduced to most other parts of the world as a fodder plant, to stabilize soil, and for lawns and golf courses.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name has been explained in various ways. In the Latin, melica means ‘buckwheat’, and the spikelets of wood melick (below) somewhat resemble buckwheat seeds. Another explanation is that the name derives from Ancient Greek meli (‘honey’), alluding to the stem, which has a sweet taste.

 

It is found from south-eastern Sweden, southern Finland, the Baltic countries, and Germany southwards to northern Africa, and from France and Spain eastwards to Kazakhstan, Xinjiang, and Iran.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’, alluding to the hairy spikes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is very widely distributed, from England eastwards to Kamchatka, and from Scandinavia and Siberia southwards to the Mediterranean, Tibet, and China, growing in forests and other shady places, at elevations up to 2,300 m.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘nodding’, alluding to the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

It is distributed in the major part of Europe, from Scandinavia southwards to northern Africa and Syria, and from the British Isles eastwards to the Baltic countries, Ukraine, and the Caucasus.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘one-flowered’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name may be derived from Ancient Greek melas (‘black’), referring to the characteristic black seeds of this genus, or perhaps from Ancient Greek melinos (‘ashy-grey’), which may allude to the colour of the inflorescences of Natal grass, before they turn snow-white.

 

It is native from Mauritania and Sudan southwards to the Cape Province, and is also found in Madagascar and southern Arabia. However, it has been introduced as an ornamental, or unintentionally, to many other parts of the world. It has been declared an invasive plant in Mexico, United States, Australia, the Dominican Republic, and French Polynesia.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘low’, probably referring to the growth of tufts.

The pictures below are from Taiwan, where Natal grass is very common, often growing along roads or in abandoned plots.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Latin, meaning ‘millet’.

 

This plant is very widespread in temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, from Europe eastwards to the Pacific Ocean, southwards to the Mediterranean, Afghanistan, the Himalaya, China, and Taiwan, and also in north-eastern North America. It grows in humid, often rather dark forests and along forest edges.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘loosely spreading’, probably alluding to the stalks in the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek miskos (‘flower-stalk’) and anthos (‘flower’), alluding to the stalked spikelets. The popular name sawgrass refers to the sharp leaf margins.

 

It often forms a tight clump of tough, erect stems, to 3.5 m tall, spreading slowly by underground rhizomes. The large, feathery inflorescence, growing to about 40 cm long, has masses of tiny pinkish flowers, covered in brownish-white hairs, which turn snow-white, as the seeds mature. The spikelets are stalked, each having a wheel-shaped tuft of hairs at the base.

This species is often planted as a hedge or windbreaker between fields, and also cultivated as an ornamental. The kernels are edible, and the plant makes very good fodder for cattle. It has also been used medicinally.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with many flowers’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘across or beyond Mount Morrison’, named for Robert Morrison (1782-1834), a Scottish Protestant missionary, who worked in Macao, Guangdong, and the Malaccan Peninsula. Today, this mountain is called Yu Shan (‘Jade Mountain’), at 3952 m the highest mountain in the Far East.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was given in honour of Spanish Jesuit priest, naturalist, historian, and linguist Juan Ignacio Molina (1740-1829), who lived in Chile. He was one of the first persons to propose the theory of gradual evolution of species, 44 years before Charles Darwin, who often quoted him in On the Origin of Species. In 1768, Molina was forced to leave Chile due to suppression of Jesuits. He settled in Italy where, in due time, he became professor of natural sciences at the University of Bologna. His Saggio sulla Storia Naturale del Chili (1778) was the first description of the natural history of Chile.

 

This tussock-forming grass grows in heathland, marshes, and moorland, with many stems to 1.2 m tall, leaves bluish-green, to 45 cm long and 6 mm broad, ligule a ring of hairs. The inflorescence is a panicle, to 20 cm long, spikelets dark purple.

Due to the dense tussocks, it is very resistant to heath fires, and it is quite an aggressive species, often expelling other species. For this reason, it is an unwanted plant in many moorlands, but once established it is very difficult to get rid of.

The specific name is the feminine form of caeruleus (‘dark blue’), referring to the purple inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It often forms dense growths of compact tufts, with very thin, grey-green leaves, to 30 cm long and only 1 mm wide, stems to about 60 cm tall. It grows in heaths, moorlands, and grassy areas on nutrient-poor, acidic, sandy or peaty soils.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek nardos, a word used for various grasses.

In Denmark, a folk name of this species is uredt hår (‘uncombed hair’), alluding to the leaves in a tuft often pointing in all directions.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of foxtail millet (Setaria italica, see caption Cereals and sugarcane below). The origin is uncertain, probably either from panis (‘bread’ or ‘loaf’), or from panus (‘an ear of millet’).

 

The stems vary in height, from 20 cm to 1 m, erect or arching. Leaves are to 30 cm long and 6 mm wide, flat or with a keel. The inflorescence is a loose, spreading panicle, to 20 cm long, spikelets very small, to 3 mm long. It readily spreads by its large, branching rhizomes, which are pointed, giving rise to the name torpedograss. By Mississippi State University, it is referred to as “one of the world’s worst weeds. (…) When fully matured, torpedograss can grow up to 3 feet tall and form dense monotypic stands that out compete native species and lead to a loss of diversity and overall ecological health.”

The specific name is Latin, meaning either ‘creeping’ (which is a very bad name for this tall grass), or ‘unexpected’, ‘suddenly’, which may allude to it popping up everywhere.

Several other pictures, depicting this species, are shown on the page Plants: Urban plant life.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the true canary-grass (P. canariensis), originally derived from Ancient Greek phaleros (‘glistening’), alluding to the shining seeds of that species.

 

Stem to 2 m tall, stiff, leaves pale green (variegated in cultivars, which may sometimes escape), alternate, evenly spaced, mostly flat, to 30 cm long and 2 cm wide, rough on the upper side, sheath to 7 mm long, toothed. The inflorescence is a panicle, to 20 cm long, spikelets to 7 mm long, pale green, often streaked darker green or purple. When flowering, branches in the panicle are spreading, later compact.

This species is very widely distributed, found in subarctic, temperate, and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, southwards to Mexico, the Mediterranean, Iran, the Himalaya, and Indochina, and also in mountains of eastern Africa, Madagascar, and Sri Lanka.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek arundo, the classical name of giant reed (Arundo donax, above), but it may also mean ‘reed’ in general, thus ‘reed-like’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek phleos, a species of rush (Juncus), which grew in wet habitats. Why Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) applied the name to this genus is not obvious, as most of the members are not growing in wet areas.

The common name refers to the shape of the spike.

 

In its widest sense, alpine cat’s-tail has a very wide distribution, found in most temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, and also in southern South America. Formerly, it was believed that plants of the Alps and nearby mountains constituted a separate subspecies, rhaeticum, but this subspecies is no longer accepted by Kew Gardens. However, its spikes are much longer than those of the typical alpinum, so I see no reason not to preserve this subspecies.

The subspecific name alludes to Rhaetia, a province in the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people, who lived in what is today eastern and central Switzerland, extreme southern Germany, Vorarlberg and the greater part of Tyrol in Austria, and part of northern Lombardy in Italy.

 

 

 

 

 

It is very widely distributed, found from almost the entire Europe eastwards to eastern Siberia, southwards to northern Africa, Iran, Tibet, and northern China.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘Phleum-like’, which seems odd, when it is fact placed in the genus Phleum. The explanation is that in 1818 it was named Chilochloa phleoides by French botanist Nicaise Auguste Desvaux (1784-1856).

The common name was given in honour of German botanist and physician Georg Rudolf Böhmer (1723-1803), professor of botany and anatomy at the University of Wittenberg. He published a 5-volume work on natural history with the title Bibliotheca scriptorum historiae naturalis.

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to the entire Europe, eastwards to eastern Siberia, southwards to Morocco, Iran, and western Himalaya. It has been introduced to most other parts of the world as a fodder, often becoming naturalized.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘grows in meadows’. The common name probably refers to Timothy Hanson, an American farmer, who supposedly introduced this grass from New England to the southern United States in the early 18th Century.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek phragma (‘fence’, ‘screen’), alluding to the usage of the common reed (below) to make fences.

 

It has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, only absent from some tropical areas, including rainforests, and from Antarctica and some Arctic regions.

Reeds have been utilized by Man for thousands of years, especially for house-making, thatching, and production of mats and baskets. A recent usage is for the so-called phyto-remediation water treatment. Sewage water trickles through a constructed reed bed, where bacteria on the rhizomes remove most of the nutrients. Pictures, depicting the usage of reed, are shown below in the section Other usage of grasses.

Young stems and rhizomes can be dried and ground into flour, and the rhizomes are also utilized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments, including cough and phlegm.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘southern’ – indeed a strange name. Southern compared to what?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek phyllon (‘leaf’) and stachys (‘spike’), referring to the panicle, which has leaves at the end of the primary branches.

 

It is a large plant, sometimes growing to 20 m tall, stems measuring to 9 cm across, internodes to 40 cm long. It often propagates by rhizomes, which may grow some distance from the mother plant before forming a new clump. Thus, it is able to produce extensive stands.

This species is cultivated as an ornamental, and for the stems, which are used for buildings, furniture, umbrellas, containers, and agricultural tools, and to make paper. Young shoots are harvested from the wild when about 10 cm above the ground. They are edible when boiled.

The specific name was given in honour of Japanese botanist Tomitaro Makino (1862-1957), called ‘the Father of Japanese Botany’. He was one of the first Japanese botanists to classify plants according to the system developed by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). Makino discovered about 600 species new to science, and he named more than 2,500 plants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Ancient Greek, simply meaning ‘fodder’.

 

It is a small grass, growing to a maximum of 25 cm tall, but often much lower. It is a very common weed in trampled places, such as trails and in cities.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is very widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, found from subarctic regions southwards to Texas, North Africa, Iran, the Himalaya, and China, growing in woods and open forests, usually near the edge.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in woods’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is very widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, found from subarctic regions southwards to Mexico, the Mediterranean, Iran, the Himalaya, and Indochina, and also growing in montane regions of Yemen, the Philippines, Java, and New Guinea. Elsewhere, it has been introduced as a fodder grass.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in meadows’.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name honours Italian botanist Benedetto Luigi Puccinelli (1808-1850), professor of Botany at the University of Lucca and director of the Lucca Botanical Garden. He was the author of a work titled Synopsis plantarum in agro Lucensi sponte nascentium (‘Synopsis of the plants growing spontaneously in the Lucca countryside’).

 

It grows in moist habitats, usually on saline soils, including along salted roads. It is distributed in Eurasia, from Iceland eastwards to Alaska, and from subarctic areas southwards to the Mediterranean, Jordan, Iran, and China. It has also become widely naturalized in North America.

The specific name alludes to the rather large distance between branches in the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin seta (‘bristle’), alluding to the awns.

 

It may reach a height of 1 m, but is usually lower, stems mostly smooth, green, sometimes purplish-tinged, leaves to 30 cm long, inflorescence cylindrical, spike-like, sometimes yellow, to 15 cm long, spikelets with short bristles. It grows in many open habitats, including lawns, roadsides, cultivated fields, and in cities along sidewalks.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘dwarf’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek spora (‘seed’) and bolos (‘to throw’), alluding to the seeds, which are easily detached.

 

It grows to 1.5 m tall, stems smooth, leaves to 60 cm long and 2.5 cm wide at the base, tapering sharply and down-bent at the tip. The inflorescence is a one-sided, spike-like panicle, to 40 cm long, spikelets to 1.4 cm long. The flowers are yellowish-green, turning brown in the winter. It often spreds by underground rhizomes, which, incidentally, are an important food source for the snow goose (Anser caerulescens).

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with alternate flowers’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from styppeion, the Ancient Greek term for the rough fibers of flax or hemp. In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico (‘Notes on the Gallic War’), Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) mentions that this grass was used as thatch.

 

A tufted plant, stem to 70 cm tall, leaves blue-green, up-rolled, to 15 cm long and 4 mm wide, sheath and ligule hairy along the edge. The inflorescence is a dense panicle, to 15 cm long, spikelets to 2 cm long, awn very long, to 10 cm.

The specific name refers to the Cape Province of South Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek thino (‘sand’) and pyros (‘wheat’), alluding to the primary habitat of T. junceiforme (below).

 

This is a pioneer plant of beaches, usually growing in front of dunes, but it has also been found inland in alkaline areas and along roads.

It is native to north-western and western Europe, from Scandinavia, Finland, and the Baltic countries southwards to France, westwards to Ireland. It has also been reported from Svalbard and Morocco.

The specific name is derived from the Latin junceus (‘rush-like’) and forma (‘shape’), referring to its resemblance to certain species of rush (Juncus).

 

 

 

 

 

Savannas and prairies are divided into two types, one with short grasses, another with tall grasses. Bamboo forests are shown above in the caption Bamboo.

The antelope species mentioned below are described on the page Animals – Mammals: Antelopes, zebras on the page Nature: Nature’s patterns, the cheetah on the page Portraits, the lion on the page Animals – Mammals: Lion – king of the savanna.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grasses, especially bamboo, are utilized for production of a large number of items, including roof covers (thatch), mats, baskets, scaffolds, rafts, bridges, water pipes, fish traps, and rain coats. They are also used ornamentally, especially as lawns. Some grasses are grown for fuel.

 

Leavening of the bread could take place by leaving the uncooked dough outside, where it would be exposed to airborne yeasts. Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) states that Gauls and Iberians used foam skimmed from beer to produce “a lighter kind of bread than other peoples.”

Over time, the cracking stones evolved into true grinding stones, with a larger, flat and smooth stone, on which the corn was placed, and then using a round stone to crush the seeds.

Later, various types of mills were invented to perform the grinding of the cereals, divided into watermills, which work by hydropower, and windmills, which are driven by the wind. A large number of pictures, depicting various types of mills, are shown on the page Culture: Mills.

 

 

 

 

 

In 2020, the world production of wheat was about 760 million tons. The largest producers were China (c. 135 million tons), India (c. 108 million tons), Russia (c. 86 million tons), United States (c. 50 million tons), Canada (c. 35 million tons), France (c. 30 million tons), and Pakistan and Ukraine (both c. 25 million tons).

The scientific name is derived from the Latin tritus, originally from tero (‘to graze’, ‘to grind’), and from aestas (‘summer’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The largest maize growers are the United States (c. 360 million tons), China (c. 260 million tons), Brazil (c. 100 million tons), and Argentina (c. 60 million tons).

The name of the plant is derived from Spanish maíz, a corruption of Taino mahiz. Taino is an extinct Arawakan language, once spoken in huge areas of the Caribbean.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

About 70% of the barley produced is used as animal fodder, and almost 30% as an ingredient in the production of beer and alcohol, and in various foods.

In a few cultures, barley is used for human consumption, in soups and stews, and to make bread. Among Tibetans, roasted barley flour, called tsampa, is a staple food. The flour is mixed with hot or cold water, or tea, to a porridge-like substance, which is then eaten. Thus, tsampa is easy to make a quick meal from – very convenient for a nomadic people.

In China and Taiwan, barley flower is an ingredient in a green type of sticky rice dumplings, called qingtuan, which are consumed during the Qing Ming Festival (‘tomb-sweeping’). This festival is described on the page Culture: Graves.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for barley, derived from Proto-Italic horzdeom (‘bristly’), alluding to the long, prickly awns. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

The Old English word for barley was bere, which gave rise to the word beer. The word barn also derives from bere, meaning ‘barley-house’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin syricum (‘from Syria’).

 

It originated in Africa, and is now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. The annual production is around 60 million tons, making it the fifth most important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley.

The specific name probably refers to the grains, which can have many different colours.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rolled oats are a popular breakfast meal, either with milk or yogurt, or cooked as porridge. However, most of the production is used as animal fodder, especially for horses.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for oat, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sown’ or ‘planted’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for rye, whereas the specific name is derived from Proto-Indo-European keres, from ker (‘to grow’).

In former days, cereals, but in particular rye, were often attacked by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). It was very common, and its contents of toxic alkaloids would often cause ergotism, a dreadful disease, which would attack the central nervous system, causing symptoms like spasms, diarrhoea, itching, mania, psychosis, nausea, and vomiting. It could also cause grangrene. Previously, many people died from this disease. One example took place in southern France in 994, where about 40,000 people died from ergotism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek Eleusis, the name of a town, in which initiation rites in a cult centered around the goddesses Demeter and Persephone took place. This cult is believed to have been based on an older agrarian cult. The specific name is derived from coracan, one of the popular names of finger millet, of uncertain origin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of foxtail millet (Setaria italica, below). The origin is uncertain, probably either from panis (‘bread’ or ‘loaf’), or from panus (‘an ear of millet’). The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘resembling millet’, i.e. foxtail millet.

 

 

 

 

 

Archaeological evidence concludes that foxtail millet began in China around 8,000 years ago.

The generic name is derived from the Latin seta (‘bristle’), alluding to the awns.

 

 

 

 

 

It is believed that Asian rice was first domesticated in central China about 10,000 years ago. Today, it is the most important food crop, being the staple food for more than half of the world’s population.

In 2020, the world production was about 750 million tons, the main procucers being China with about 210 million tons, and India with about 180 million tons. Other major producers are Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Vietnam.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for rice, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sown’ or ‘planted’.

The pictures below all show Asian rice.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Saccharum officinarum probably originated in New Guinea and was an early crop of Austronesian and Papuan peoples. It spread in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors to Polynesia and other islands in the Pacific, and to Madagascar. Around 1000 B.C., traders brought sugarcane to China and India, and around 500 years later, Persian and Greek traders first experienced it in India. The Greeks referred to it as “the reed that produces honey without bees.”

With a total production of about 1.9 billion tons, sugarcane is the largest crop by quantity, the largest producers being Brazil with c. 760 million tons, India with c. 370 million tons, China with c. 110 million tons, and Pakistan with c. 80 million tons. Sugarcane accounts for about 80% of all sugar produced, whereas the rest mainly comes from sugar beets.

The generic name is the classical Latin term for sugar. The specific name is derived from officina (‘workshop’ or ‘office’), thus ‘made in a workshop’. However, in a botanical context, the word denotes plants species that were sold in pharmacies due to their medicinal properties.