Deer

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Gradually, they developed into the first antlered, deer-like animals about 20 million years ago, and eventually, with the development of antlers, the tusks disappeared, except in a single species, the water deer (Hydropotes inermis), which, in this respect, resembles the unrelated musk deer (Moschidae). Genus Muntiacus (described below) has retained the tusks, but also has small antlers.

Deer live in almost all types of habitats, ranging from tundra to tropical rainforest. They are widely distributed, with native species present in all continents, except Antarctica and Australia. The largest concentration of species is found in Asia.

In Africa, antelope have replaced deer in almost the entire continent, with the exception of the Atlas Mountains in the north-western corner, where the native Barbary stag, a subspecies of red deer (Cervus elaphus) is found. Fallow deer (Dama dama) have been introduced to South Africa.

The antlers are shed every year. In this respect, deer differ from the permanently horned ruminants of the family Bovidae (cattle, sheep, goat, antelope, and goat-antelope). Only males have antlers, with the exception of female reindeer, or caribou (Rangifer tarandus). During the rut, when females are in oestrus, males use the antlers to fight for dominance, i.e. the right to mate with the females.

When the mating season is over, the antlers are shed, leaving only two small knobs, called pedicles. While new antlers emerge, they are covered by a layer of short-haired skin, called velvet. Once they cease growing, the velvet dies, creating an intense itching. To relieve this itching, the deer brushes the antlers against bushes or young trees, causing the velvet to loosen and fall off. This behaviour is called fraying. This fraying is often so violent that the bark of younger trees is removed all the way around the trunk, and the plant dies.

In many deer species, which live in cold climates, the summer pelt is reddish-brown, whereas the winter pelt is greyish.

A larger deer male is called a stag, a female a hind, and a young a kid. An exception is the huge moose (Alces alces), where a male is a bull, a female a cow, and a young a calf. A smaller deer male is called a buck, a female a doe, a young a fawn. A group of deer is a herd.

Although deer-like, musk deer (Moschidae) and chevrotains, or mouse-deer (Tragulidae), constitute separate families of ruminants, which are not closely related to true deer. Musk deer are described on the page Animals – Mammals: Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A medium-sized deer, males may weigh up to 100 kg, whereas the females are much lighter.

The generic and specific names are Latin, referring to an Indian animal, mentioned by Roman philosopher and naturalist Pliny the Elder (c. 23-79 A.D.). The Hindi name chital is derived from Sanskrit citrala (‘spotted’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, the western Eurasian group, called red deer (C. elaphus, see below), has several subspecies in western Europe, the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. However, the taxonomy of this group remains unsettled, and some subspecies may merit specific status, including C. (e.) corsicanus, which lives on Corsica and Sardinia. It may be conspecific with the Barbary stag (C. (e.) barbarus) of north-western Africa.

The eastern Eurasian group includes the wapiti (below), which is distributed in north-eastern Asia and North America, Thorold’s or white-lipped deer (C. albirostris), which occurs in eastern Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and north-western Yunnan, and the sika deer (below), which is found in Japan and Taiwan, at scattered locations in eastern China, and in Ussuriland, south-eastern Siberia.

Some authorities place several South Asian deer in the genus Cervus, others in the genus Rusa, including the sambar deer (below) and the rusa deer (below).

The generic name is the classical Latin term for deer.

 

To the early European explorers in North America, this animal resembled a moose (below), and, consequently, they gave it the name elk, which is the European English name for the moose, derived from Old Norse elgr. The name wapiti is a Shawnee and Cree word, meaning ‘white rump’. The Altai wapiti of Central Asia (C. c. sibiricus) is locally known as the Altai maral.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

At one time, the red deer was rare in parts of Europe, and had even been eradicated in some areas. Since then, conservation efforts, combined with reintroduction, has resulted in growing populations in several countries, including England, Portugal, and Denmark. In other areas, the species is declining, including in North Africa.

The specific name is a Latinized version of elaphos, the classical Greek term for deer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is restricted to a few locations in Kashmir and northern Himachal Pradesh. Habitat destruction, competition from grazing livestock, and poaching brought it to the brink of extinction, with only about 150 individuals surviving around 1970. Conservation measures has had the effect that the population is now around 300, but this number is still dangerously low.

The specific name is a corruption of hangul, the local Kashmir name of this deer.

According to the Indian Hindu epic Mahabharata, one of the Pandava brothers, Bhima, spent some time in exile in Manali, Himachal Pradesh, northern India. During his stay, he fell in love with a local beauty, Hadimba (also called Hidimbi), who, as a young woman, had vowed to marry the man, who was able to defeat her brother Hadimb (or Hidimb) – a very brave and strong person.

Bhima managed to kill Hadimb, whereupon Hadimba married him. Later, the local people regarded her as a goddess, an incarnation of the supreme Mother Goddess Devi.

The Hadimba Temple in Manali was erected in 1553 over a cave in a huge rock, where Hadimba supposedly meditated. Later, this rock was worshipped as an image of the deity.

The Pandava brothers are described in depth on the page Religion: Hinduism.

 

 

 

 

 

Sika deer have been introduced to many countries around the world, and in some places they have escaped to form feral populations. This is the case in the Scottish Highlands, where they hybridize with native red deer, thus being a serious threat to the gene pool of the red deer population.

The specific name is taken from Nippon, the Japanese term for Japan.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name refers to the island of Timor. Presumably, the type specimen was collected there.

On the island of Komodo, this deer constitutes an important food item for the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). This huge lizard waits patiently at a waterhole, and when a potential prey approaches to quench its thirst, the dragon suddenly rushes forward, biting a leg of the animal. Then all it has to do is to follow the scent trail of the victim. The saliva of Komodo dragons is toxic, and after some hours the prey is so weak that the lizard is able to kill it.

My encounter with these monsters is related on the page Travel episodes – Indonesia 1985: Difficult journey to Komodo.

 

 

 

 

 

The weight of a stag is typically around 350 kg, although large specimens may weigh as much as 550 kg. Hinds are smaller, weighing 100-200 kg. Populations of this deer have declined substantially in most areas, mainly due to hunting and habitat destruction. It has been introduced to various countries around the world, including Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.

The common name is derived from Sanskrit sambara (‘deer’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin term for the fallow deer.

 

At an early stage, the fallow deer was reintroduced to deer parks all over Europe, and recently it has also been introduced to many other countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and the United States. It often forms feral populations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The last part of the generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek elaphos (‘deer’), and the first part is probably derived from Ancient Greek hyle (‘forest’).

 

It ranges from Pakistan in a belt eastwards across the Gangetic Plain of northern India to Bangladesh and Myanmar. It has also been introduced to Australia and Sri Lanka. In Indochina and south-western China, it is replaced by the Indochinese hog deer (H. annamiticus).

The specific name, from Ancient Greek porkos (‘pig’ or ‘hog’), was given in allusion to the hog-like manner, in which it runs through the forest, with the head stretched forward, so that it can duck under obstacles instead of leaping over them.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a combination of two other genus names, Rusa, which means ‘deer’ in Malay, and Cervus (above).

 

This deer differs from all other Indian species in that the antlers carry more than 3 tines, giving rise to the Hindi name barah singga, meaning ‘twelve-horned’. Mature stags usually have 10-14 tines, but up to 20 has been recorded.

Three subspecies have been described. The western nominate race has splayed hooves, an adaptation to live in flooded grasslands in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Today, a population of about 2,000 live in scattered locations in Uttar Pradesh, and about 2,200 in the Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve in western Nepal.

The eastern subspecies ranjitsinhi is restricted to the north-eastern state of Assam, where the population was as low as about 700 in 1978. Since then, numbers have been steadily rising due to conservation efforts. In 2016, it was estimated that about 1150 individuals were present in Kaziranga National Park. A few also live in Manas National Park and other protected areas.

The southern subspecies branderi differs from the other subspecies in having hard hooves, an adaptation to live in open forest with an understorey of grass. Formerly, it was restricted to Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, where only about 750 individuals survive. Lately, it has been reintroduced to Satpura Tiger Reserve, likewise in Madhya Pradesh.

The specific name commemorates French naturalist and explorer Alfred Duvaucel (1793-1824), who died in India, only 31 years old. Rumours had it that he was killed by a tiger.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Males are characterized by their short antlers, often only about 10 cm long. Instead of using their antlers, they tend to fight for territory with their 2-4 cm long upper canines. Where the males have antlers, the females have small bony knobs with tufts of fur.

The generic name is a Latinized form of the Dutch name of these animals, muntjak, which is a corruption of their Sundanese name, mencek. The popular name barking deer was given in allusion to their alarm call, which is reminiscent of a dog’s barking.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reeves’s muntjac was introduced to Britain in the 1800s, and a steadily growing feral population has been established from zoo escapes. It is now found in most English counties and has expanded its range into Wales and southern Scotland. It has also been introduced to Japan, Holland, and Belgium.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From Ukraine and the northern flanks of the Caucasus, eastwards through the taiga zone to the Pacific Ocean, and also in Tibet, Korea, and Manchuria, this species is replaced by the Siberian roe deer (C. pygargus). Formerly, these deer were regarded as a single species, but today most authorities recognize them as separate species. The Siberian roe deer is larger, with longer, more branched antlers than the European roe deer.

In Roman Latin, the term capra usually indicated a she-goat, but with the diminutive suffix olus added, it meant ‘a small deer’. The name pygargus stems from Ancient Greek pygargos, from pyge (‘rump’) and argos (‘white’), alluding to the deer flashing the white hair on the rump when alarmed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The size of this huge deer varies considerably according to subspecies and also availability of nutritious food. On average, an adult bull measures 2 m at the shoulder, the cow 1.4 m. Bulls may weigh almost up to a ton, although 380-700 kg is more common. Cows typically weigh 200-490 kg. Besides his enormous antlers, the bull is characterized by a large dewlap. Seven subspecies are recognized.

The generic and specific names probably stem from Proto-Germanic algiz, which was corrupted to alke in Ancient Greek, and in Norse elgur, which was shortened to elg in Danish and Norwegian, älg in Swedish.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek odous (‘tooth’) and koilos (‘hollow’), alluding to the fact that these deer have hollow teeth.

 

The name mule deer refers to its rather large ears, reflected in the specific name, derived from Ancient Greek hemionos (‘mule’). The two names of this deer indicate the main differences between this species and the white-tailed deer (below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It has also been introduced elsewhere, including Cuba, Jamaica, the Czech Republic, New Zealand, and Finland, and is regarded as an invasive species in the latter two countries.

In many parts of North America, this species has spread beyond control, and despite its status as a native species, it is often considered invasive. As far back as in the 1940s, in his book A Sand County Almanac, environmentalist Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) wrote: “I now suspect that just as a deer herd lives in mortal fear of its wolves, so does a mountain live in mortal fear of its deer.”

In August 2012, The Bloomberg View published a staff editorial, entitled: “Deer Infestation Calls for Radical Free-Market Solution.”

About two months later, The Wall Street Journal ran a story, entitled: “America Gone Wild,” noting the impact of overabundant deer.

The Nature Conservancy then noted: “No native vertebrate species in the eastern United States has a more direct effect on habitat integrity than the white-tailed deer. (…) In many areas of the country, deer have changed the composition and structure of forests by preferentially feeding on select plant species.”

On the other hand, the Key deer, subspecies clavium, which lives only in the Florida Keys, is endangered. It is the smallest subspecies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

For thousands of years, deer antlers in velvet have been an important ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, utilized for various ailments, including joint and bone problems, and calcium deficiency, and also as a growth tonic for children, as a remedy against old age, and as an aphrodisiac.

Deer penis is reported to have important therapeutic properties. It is sliced into small pieces, roasted, and dried in the sun. In former days, in Taiwan, women were reported to consume deer penis during pregnancy, as it was believed that it would make the mother and child stronger. The Ancient Mayans were also known to roast deer penis, and Greek physician Hippocrates of Kos (c. 460-370 B.C.) recommended it as an aphrodisiac.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pictures from this area are shown on several other pages on this website, including Religion: Hinduism, Animals – Mammals: Rise and fall of the mighty elephants, and Plants: Ancient and huge trees.