Autumn

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin liquidus (‘liquid’) and the Arabic anbar, which, via the Moors, became ambar in Spanish. Amber from members of this genus was formerly used in the cosmetic industry.

Formerly, these trees were placed in the witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceae), but have since been transferred to Altingiaceae.

 

The leaves are almost star-shaped, with 5 to 7 pointed lobes.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek styrax, the name of the tree Styrax officinalis and its fragrant balsam, and from the Latin fluere (‘to flow’), thus ‘flowing with fragrant gum’.

A close relative, Chinese sweetgum (L. formosana), is presented below in the section Asiatic autumn foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek rhous, the name of sumac. This word is derived from Ancient Syriac summaq (‘red’), referring to the red fruits of the genus. They have an acrid taste and are used as a spice in the Middle East.

Many other species, which were formerly placed in Rhus, have since been transferred to the genus Searsia, others to Toxicodendron, including poison ivy (below), and poison oak, presented in the section West American autumn foliage.

 

It produces an abundance of berries, which are eagerly sought out by birds. The seeds, which pass unharmed through their gut, are spread with the bird droppings and are thus able to colonize open areas and forest edges.

 

 

 

 

 

In North America, the fruits are soaked in cold water to make ‘pink lemonade’, a refreshing beverage, rich in vitamin C.

When describing this plant in 1756, Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) used the phrase Ramis hirtis uti typhi cervini, meaning “the branches are rough like antlers in velvet.”

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek toxikos (‘poison’) and dendron (‘tree’).

 

As with other members of this genus, it contains the toxic urushiol, which causes rashes and other allergic reactions in some people. In his delightful book All about Weeds, American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) writes about it: “With alliterations, we may almost truthfully say ‘the worst weed of the woods’ or ‘the worst weed of waste places’ is the poison ivy. If its toxin affected the skin of every one as it does that of a few, it would not be necessary to qualify these allitterations. They would be literally true. This is the one weed, however, that every one who lives in the country, and all who visit it, should know. Those who are immune to its poison have nothing to fear, but no one knows whether he is immune or not until he has come in contact with some part of the plant. If he is susceptible he will long remember that day, and if he is wise he will develop his observational powers, until they equal those of a first-class botanist, when he approaches a likely habitat of this snake of the woods.”

In his excellent book The Green Pharmacy, American botanist and herbalist James A. Duke (1929-2017) recommends the juice of soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) as the best remedy, if you have been into contact with poison ivy or other Toxicodendron species. Smear the juice over the affected area to neutralize the poison.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘taking root’, from radix (‘root’), alluding to the spreading roots of this plant.

A close relative, the western poison oak (T. diversilobum), is presented below in the section West American autumn foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek eus (‘good’) and onoma (‘name’). It is not clear why Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) applied this name to this genus.

 

Formerly, the powdered bark was used by native tribes and pioneers as a purgative.

The specific name is derived from the Latin ater (‘dark’) and purpureus (‘purple’), alluding to the autumn colour of this species.

A close relative, the European spindle tree (E. europaeus), is presented below in the section Fruits: Capsules.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male flowers are in pendent catkins, females in mostly erect spikes. The fruit is a nut, called an acorn, partly enclosed in a cup-like structure, the cupule, consisting of overlapping bracts with free tips. (See examples of acorns below in the section Hard-shelled fruits: Acorns.)

The generic name is the classical Latin term for oaks, which probably stems from the name of the Lithuanian god of thunder, Perkunas. In almost all of Europe, the oak was a sacred tree, dedicated to the highest gods, in Greece to Zeus, in Nordic countries to Thor, the god of thunder.

The word oak is from the Anglo-Saxon ek, in ancient Germanic aik, of uncertain origin and meaning.

A number of oaks are presented on the page Plants: Ancient and huge trees.

A few species of eastern American oaks display brilliant autumn foliage.

 

Despite its name, the bark of this species is mostly grey, only occasionally white. It can grow very old, some specimens having reached the ripe age of 450 years.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek kokkinos (‘scarlet’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is of Spanish origin, possibly adapted from an unknown indigenous language.

 

Ground leaves of sassafras is an ingredient in home-made root beer, and they also act as a thickener and flavouring in gumbo, a spicy herb, which was used by indigenous tribes in the southern United States, and was later adopted into Louisiana Creole cuisine. (Source: C. Nobles 2009. Gumbo, in: S. Tucker & S. Starr, New Orleans Cuisine: Fourteen Signature Dishes and Their Histories, University Press of Mississippi)

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants are widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, with most species in Asia, others in Europe, northern Africa, and North and Central America. Only a single species occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek akros (‘sharp’ or ‘pointed’), alluding to the shape of the leaves.

 

The popular name stems from the striped bark on younger trees.

 

 

 

 

 

It is very adaptable, growing in various types of soil, from swamps to dry areas, and from sea level to about 900 m altitude.

The specific name is derived from the Latin ruber (‘red’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is generally believed that the leaf of sugar maple is depicted on the Canadian national flag, but according to the website canada.ca/en.html, this depiction does not represent any particular maple species.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sugar’, adapted from Ancient Greek sakkharon, ultimately from Sanskrit sarkara, a term used for ground as well as candied sugar.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As with other members of this genus, poison oak contains a toxic substance, urushiol, which many people are allergic to (see poison ivy above, in section East American autumn foliage).

In his book My First Summer in the Sierra (1911), Scottish-American writer and environmentalist John Muir (1838-1914) says: “Poison oak (…) is common throughout the foothill region up to a height of at least three thousand feet [900 m] above the sea. It is somewhat troublesome to most travelers, inflaming the skin and eyes, but blends harmoniously with its companion plants. (…) I have oftentimes found the curious twining lily (Stropholirion Californicum) climbing its branches, showing no fear but rather congenial companionship. Sheep eat it without apparent ill effects; so do horses to some extent, though not fond of it, and to many persons it is harmless. Like most other things not apparently useful to man, it has few friends, and the blind question, “Why was it made?” goes on and on with never a guess that first of all it might have been made for itself.”

The specific name is derived from the Latin diversus (‘diverse’), and Ancient Greek lobos (‘lobe’), referring to the leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kerkis, meaning ‘weaver’s shuttle’, applied by Greek scholar Theophrastos (c. 371 – c. 287 B.C.) to the Mediterranean Judas tree (C. siliquastrum). Presumably, shuttles were made from the wood of this species.

 

Early in spring, it produces a profusion of pink or purplish flowers.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘of the West’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is adapted to fire, protected from smaller fires by its thick bark. It is killed by larger fires, but easily sprouts again from the roots. Acorns mainly sprout, when a fire has cleared an area of leaf litter. This was known by several indigenous peoples, who purposely lit fires to renew growths of this tree, whose acorns was a staple food source to them.

The specific name honours American physician and botanist Albert Kellogg (1813-1887), one of the founding members of the California Academy of Sciences.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The leaves are broad, with a long, slender stalk, which is flattened, making it rustle in the slightest puff of wind. Inflorescences are pendent catkins, with numerous tiny flowers clustered around a central axis, each flower surrounded by papery bracts. The flowers are wind-pollinated, and the fluffy seeds are spread by the wind.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for poplars. The common name cottonwood alludes to the fluffy seeds. The name aspen is derived from aspo, the ancient Proto-Germanic name of poplars.

 

This tree was named for its leaves, which tremble noisily in the slightest breeze. The Onondaga people called it nut-kie-e, meaning ‘noisy leaf’, and a local poplar species in Louisiana was dubbed langues de femmes (‘women’s talk’) by the French refugees.

The specific name means ‘resembling tremula‘. It refers to the European aspen (P. tremula), presented below in the section European autumn foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It has a rather limited distribution, found along the Pacific coast from southern British Columbia southwards to northern California, being a colonizer of avalanche areas and open forests, which have been clear-cut by loggers.

In former days, wood of this tree was utilized by native tribes to make bows, frames for fishing nets, snowshoes, and cradle frames. Other tribes boiled the bark of the root and drank this decoction to treat colds. Charcoal made from this species was mixed with water, taken against dysentery and polio.

 

 

 

 

 

Most individuals of this tree are 15-20 m high, but specimens up to 48 m tall have been recorded. It is native to the Pacific Coast, from southernmost Alaska to southern California. Inland, it occurs in the Sierra Nevada, and in central Idaho.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Celtic betu (’glue’), referring to the fact that Celts extracted a glue-like substance from birch sap. In certain areas with Gaelic-speaking peoples, including Wales and Brittany, birch is still called bezuenn or bedwen.

The common name is derived from Proto-Germanic berko, in all probability rooted in Sanskrit bhurja, the name of a species of birch.

In Norse religion, the birch represented Freya, the Great Mother Goddess, and among Celtic peoples the star goddess, Arianrhod, whose caer (‘throne’) was situated in the Corona Borealis (Northern Lights). She was invoked through the birch to assist in births and initiations.

Previously, the soft birch wood was carved into numerous items, including furniture, cups, bowls, bobbins, cradles, and toys. The bark separates into thin strips, which peels off easily. It is tough, water proof and rot proof, making it perfect as roofing material. It was also utilized to make buckets, baskets, bottles, plates, and shoes, and for writing and drawing. Due to its content of volatile oils, rolled-up bark could be used as torches.

 

In Scotland, many populations have declined drastically in recent years, presumably due to global warming.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘dwarf’.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name means ’pendulous’ or ‘hanging’ in Latin, referring to the pendulous outer branches of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin pubes (’downy’), like the common name alluding to the downy twigs of this tree.

In former days, birch populations in Arctic regions were regarded as a subspecies, tortuosa, of the downy birch. However, genetic research indicates that it evolved from hybridization between downy birch and dwarf birch, and today most authorities regard it as a variety of the former, named B. pubescens var. pumila.

 

 

 

 

Some of these formations, named Hljoðaklettar, have withstood erosion by the Jökulsá á Fjöllum River. Hljoðaklettar means ‘Echo Rocks’, so named due to the peculiar acoustics of the area, which produce echoes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin cornu (‘horn’), alluding to the hard wood of Cornelian cherry-dogwood (Cornus mas). It is so dense that it will sink in water.

The prefix dog may imply that the fruits of common dogwood (below) are of little value, having a bitter taste. Alternatively, it may refer to the former usage of dogwood shoots, which were sharpened and used by farmers as cattle prods, called dags. Skewers were also made from the tough and durable wood.

 

In former days, oil from the berries was used as lamp fuel. Medicinally, they were utilized as an emetic, whereas the astringent bark was used as a febrifuge.

In 1991, the well-preserved body of a Stone Age hunter was discovered in a glacier in the Alps. Ötzi the Iceman, as he was dubbed, died about 5,300 years ago, presumably caught in a snowstorm. His arrow shafts were made from dogwood and viburnum wood. (Source: K. Spindler 1994. The Man in the Ice)

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘blood-coloured’, which may refer either to the red stems or to the autumn foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek pteris (‘fern’) and ium, a suffix forming adjectives.

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin aquila (‘eagle’). Dutch philosopher and theologian Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (1466-1536), in English known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, said that the pattern of the fibres seen in a transverse section of the leaf-stalk resembled a double-headed eagle, and in 1755, in his reprint of Flora Suecica, Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) explains that the name refers to the image of an eagle, seen in the transverse section of the root.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Blueberry is the name of 21 small shrubs of this genus, 20 of which are indigenous to North America, including the European blueberry (below). The remaining species, Korean blueberry (V. koreanum), is restricted to Korea and the neighbouring Liaoning Province of China.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of blueberries.

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek myrtos (‘myrtle’), and the Latin illus, a diminutive suffix, thus ‘the small myrtle’, alluding to the myrtle-like leaves.

A picture, depicting the delicious fruits, is shown below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

The berries resemble those of European blueberry, but have a slightly acidic taste. They are depicted below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

The specific name is derived from the Latin uligo (‘dampness’), referring to the fact that the prime habitat of this species is swampy areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for beeches.

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin silva (‘forest’) and aticus (‘pertaining to’), thus ‘growing in forests’.

Other pictures, depicting this tree, are shown on the pages Plants: Ancient and huge trees, and Nature: Nature’s patterns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, originally meaning ‘reddish’, but later also ‘strong’ or ‘hard’, referring to the hard, dark heartwood of the common oak.

Other pictures, depicting common oaks, may be seen on the pages Plants: Ancient and huge trees, and Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek tilos (’fibre’), referring to the use of the bark as bast. The name linden was adopted from the old Norse name of the plant, lind. In Britain, linden trees are sometimes called lime, probably a corruption of lind.

In prehistoric times, linden trees were sacred to many Germanic and Slavic tribes. In the Norse religion, they were dedicated to Odin’s wife Frigg, goddess of wisdom and foreknowledge. Later, lindens were worshipped as a symbol of knowledge, often planted in the centre of the village, where the elders would meet to discuss various issues.

Due to their content of essential oils, linden flowers emit a powerful fragrance, and tea made from dried flowers is a popular drink in many countries, in France called tilleul, in Italy tiglio, and in the Unites States basswood tea. The flowers supply excellent honey, and during the Middle Ages, linden trees were often planted around monasteries and castles to provide honey.

The role of linden trees in folklore and folk medicine is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Proto-Italic fraksinos, originally a Proto-Indo-European word for birch trees. The connection to birches is hard to see.

 

In later years, populations of ash have been much reduced by ash dieback, a disease caused by a fungus, Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, previously called Chalara fraxinea. Most trees that contract this disease die after a few years. However, research has shown that some trees have resistance to it.

The specific name is derived from the Latin excelsus (‘lofty’) and ior, a suffix forming adjectives.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is Latin, meaning fragile, originally from frango (‘to break’), referring to the fragile branches of alder buckthorn (below).

 

The specific and common names refer to the fact that alder buckthorn often grows in the same places as common alder (Alnus glutinosa).

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is a drupe, with a fleshy outer layer and an inner hard stone, enclosing the seed.

The generic name is a Latinized version of the Ancient Greek name of the plum tree, prounos.

The common name cherry, like the German Kirsch and the Italian cerasa, stems from the Latin cerasus, which was adopted from kerasos, the classical Greek name of the cherry tree. Cerasus was also the ancient Roman name of the modern town Giresun, situated on the Black Sea coast of Turkey, from where cherries during the Roman Era were exported to Rome.

Cherry species are dealt with in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin avis (‘bird’), relating to the fact that various bird species love cherries. The delicious fruit is shown in a picture below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is highly distinctive, a globular head on the domed tip of the flower-stalk, consisting of fleshy carpels, usually with many nutlets on the surface.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for bramble (below).

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘blue-grey’, alluding to the colour of the fruits (see section Berries and berry-like fruits below).

 

 

 

 

 

It is highly invasive in some areas, forming dense thickets, which expel native vegetation and often threaten entire ecosystems. It is considered a noxious weed in many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘shrubby’.

A picture, depicting the delicious fruits, is shown below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It has also been introduced to North America, where it has become invasive in many eastern states. For this reason, Massachusetts and New Hampshire have banned planting of it.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘resembling Platanus‘, alluding to the leaf shape, which resembles that of plane trees (below).

 

 

 

 

 

An example of this invasiveness is described on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘false Platanus‘, alluding to the leaf shape, which resembles that of plane trees (below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is a nutlet, surrounded by a wide, papery wing, to 1.5 cm across.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for elms.

 

In Europe, populations of common elm have been drastically reduced by Dutch elm disease, described in depth on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Dutch elm disease on Vorsø.

Young fruits of this species are edible.

The name wych is from an Old English word, wice, meaning ‘pliable’. The specific name means ’smooth’ in Latin, referring to the smooth branches on younger trees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek sambuca, the term for an ancient instrument of Asian origin. Presumably, the soft pith was removed from the twigs to make flutes. The name elder is derived from Anglo-Saxon aeld (’fire’). The hollow stems were used to kindle a fire.

 

The popular names pipe tree and bore tree stem from the habit of removing the pith of elder branches to produce pipes. The same procedure would make pop-guns, which were popular among small boys. English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) writes: ”It is needless to write any description of this, since every boy that plays with a pop-gun will not mistake another tree for the elder.”

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘black’, alluding to the colour of the berries (see section Berries and berry-like fruits below).

The role of elder in folklore and traditional medicine is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the common grapevine (below), originally from Proto-Indo-European wehitis (‘the one that twines or bends’).

 

In Greek mythology, Dionysos was originally the god of nature, and especially plants, but was later regarded as god of wet elements, in particular wine and blood. Initially, the major part of his followers were women, who, clad in animal skins and wearing wreaths of ivy (Hedera helix), wandered into the woods, carrying snakes and long lances with garlands of ivy, and a cone from stone pine (Pinus pinea) pierced at the point. Accompanied by music from whistles and tambourines, they danced themselves into an ecstatic frenzy, during which they believed that they saw milk, wine, and honey flow from Dionysos’s mouth. They caught wild animals, drank their blood, and wrapped their skins around their bodies. The were possessed by madness, mania, and were therefore called maenads (literally ‘the raving ones’).

The specific name is derived from the Latin vinum (‘wine’) and fer (‘carrying’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chinese sweetgum is mainly found in warmer temperate climates, growing in forests as well as in open areas. It is native to central and southern China, Taiwan, and Indochina. It is often used in traditional medicine, the bark for skin diseases, the resin for boils, toothache and tuberculosis, and the fruits for a number of ailments, including arthritis, lumbago, and skin diseases. It seems that leaves and roots can inhibit growth of cancer.

A close relative, American sweetgum (L. styraciflua), is presented above in the section East American autumn foliage.

The specific name is from the Portuguese formosa (‘beautiful’), a word that they applied to Taiwan, when they occupied the island. Most species, which bear variants of this name, were described from material stemming from Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the true pistachio tree (P. vera), adapted from Ancient Greek pistakia.

 

Due to its hardiness, and the attractive autumn foliage, it is widely cultivated in temperate and subtropical areas around the world. In warmer areas, it sheds the leaves in mid-winter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name commemorates Michel Bégon (1638-1710), from 1684 governor of Saint-Domingue, a French colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, today named Haiti. Bégon was a passionate plant collector.

 

Leaf-stalk and stems are edible when pickled, and the plant is also widely used in local medicine. Juice of stem and leaves is taken for headache, and juice of the root is used for inflamed eyes and peptic ulcer. The juice is also squeezed into vegetable dyes to make them colourfast.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘painted’, referring to the blotches on the leaves.

Other pictures, depicting this plant, may be seen on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

A picture, depicting autumn thickets of barberry, may be seen at the top of this page, whereas common barberry (B. vulgaris) is presented below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of barberry.

 

This species is found at elevations between 1,800 and 4,000 m, from Himachal Pradesh eastwards to Myanmar. In Nepal, the branches are used as fences, and the fruits are eaten raw or pickled.

A few leaves remain on the bush until next spring. They usually turn red or crimson in autumn or winter.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek keras (‘horn’) and phyllon (‘leaf’). What it refers to is not clear.

 

 

 

 

 

The leaf margin is spiny, and the yellow flowers are solitary. The berry is dull red when ripe, to 1.6 cm long.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘neat’ or ‘elegant’, perhaps alluding to the delicate reddish-purple colour of the winter foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In former times, this tree had multiple uses, reflected by the specific name, which is Latin for ‘useful’. The wood was utilized for buildings and as firewood, the bark as roof cover, to make paper, as incense, and in folk medicine for various ailments, and the foliage was lopped for fodder.

Himalayan birch is described in depth on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin terminus, ultimately from Proto-Italic termenos (‘boundary’), referring to the fact that the leaves appear at the very tip of the shoots.

 

Three of the popular names stem from the similarity of its fruits to those of the true almond (Prunus amygdalus), but the two species are not even distantly related, as the true almond is a member of the rose family (Rosaceae).

The specific name is derived from its Malay name, ketapang.

A picture, depicting the fruit, is shown below in the section Berries and berry-like fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek elaion (‘olive’) and karpos (‘fruit’), thus ‘with an olive-like fruit’.

 

In Sri Lanka, its fruit is a common food source, and it is also widely used in traditional medicine.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sawn’, presumably referring to the teeth on the leaf margin.

 

 

 

 

 

King Juba II (c. 50 B.C. – 19 A.D.) of Numidia (in present-day Algeria and Tunisia) had an interest in plants and often described them, including a thorny, succulent plant from the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, whose latex was a powerful laxative. He named this plant Euphorbea in honour of his Greek chief physician, Euphorbus. In 1753, Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) adopted this name, in the form Euphorbia, for the entire genus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Latin triadis (‘a group of three’), originally from Ancient Greek trias (‘three’). The name refers to 3-parted flowers.

 

The specific name means ‘wax-bearing’, referring to the tallow, which coats the seeds. Candles and soap are made from this wax, and in the Far East, the leaves are used in traditional medicine for treating boils. The sap and leaves are reputed to be toxic, and decaying leaves from the plant are toxic to other plants, inhibiting their growth.

Because of the tallow, this tree was introduced into the United States in the 1700s, and in the 1900s, it was widely planted along the Gulf Coast by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in an attempt to establish a soap-making industry. However, it soon spread beyond control and is today regarded as a serious pest in south-eastern U.S., which expels native plant species.

The fruits are shown below in the section Fruits: Capsules.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When he returned to Holland, Kaempfer brought seeds of this tree with him. In 1771, it was named Ginkgo biloba by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), after its Japanese name gin-kyo, which was used by Kaempfer. Thus, the last ’g’ must be a writing error, but due to the rules of botanical nomenclature we must accept Linnaeus’ blunder. Incidentally, gin-kyo means ‘silver apricot’, referring to the fruit, which somewhat resembles an apricot fruit.

British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) labelled ginkgo a ’living fossil’, a term he invented for species, which had survived unchanged for many millions of years. In fact, Ginkgo biloba is the sole surviving member of a group of plants, which evolved during Perm, more than 250 million years ago. It is so unique that it has its own division, Ginkgophyta, within the plant kingdom, with a single class, Ginkgoopsida, order Ginkgoales, family Ginkgoaceae, genus Ginkgo, and species biloba. Its nearest contemporary relatives are the cycads (Cycadales).

Ginkgo is very slow-growing, but can attain enormous dimensions, sometimes reaching a diameter of more than 4.5 m. The largest ginkgo in Japan, in Kita Kanegasawa, has a circumference of over 20 m. It often attains a height of more than 35 m, and an 1100-year-old specimen at the Yon Mun Temple in South Korea is 60 m tall. It is believed that ginkgo can live to an age of 2,500 years, or more.

Until the late 1900s, ginkgo was only known as cultivated, so it was quite sensational when larger populations were found on mountain slopes in eastern and south-western China. It is still debated, whether the eastern populations have been planted by monks, but is seems that the south-western populations are genuinely wild. (Source: C.Q. Tang et al. 2012. Evidence for the persistence of wild Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) populations in the Dalou Mountains, southwestern China. American Journal of Botany 99 (8): 1408-1414)

The specific name refers to the bilobed leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was applied by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in honour of a Swedish merchant, Magnus von Lagerström (1696-1759), who was director of the Swedish East India Company. Lagerström was a keen naturalist, and despite never visiting Asia, he was able to procure many specimens from India and China, which he presented to Linnaeus. (Source: E. Bretschneider 1898. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China)

The fruit of crepe-myrtles is described below in the section Fruits: Capsules.

 

Due to its gorgeous inflorescences, it is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree. A substance, known as banaba, which is prepared from dried leaves in the Philippines, is used to treat diabetes and urinary problems. Elsewhere, a poultice made from the leaves is taken against malaria, and it is also applied to cracked feet. A decoction of the bark is used as a treatment against diarrhoea and abdominal pain.

This tree has a wide-spread root system, and it has been widely planted as a means to control soil erosion.

The specific name means ‘beautiful’ in Latin, derived from species (‘appearance’) and‎ osus, a suffix forming adjectives.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the Ancient Greek word for the ash-tree (Fraxinus). The genus was named due to the resemblence of the leaves to those of ash trees.

In Greek mythology, Melia was one of the Oceanids, daughter of the Titans Okeanos and Tethys.

 

It readily becomes naturalized and is now regarded as an invasive species in several regions, including North America, East Africa, some Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Australia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name honours French naturalist Pierre Marie Auguste Broussonet (1761-1807), who travelled in Spain, Morocco, the Canary Islands, and southern Africa. He then returned to France, where he became director of the botanical garden in Montpellier.

 

Paper mulberry can also form dense stands via its spreading root system, and it is regarded as highly invasive in a number of countries, including Pakistan, Argentina, Ghana, and Uganda.

The specific and common names refer to the fact that the inner bark fibres have been utilized for paper making for more than a thousand years.

Other pictures, depicting this species, may be seen on the pages Nature: Invasive species, and Plants: Urban plant life.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hybridization in the genus is common, and many intermediate forms occur. Some species are cultivated as ornamentals in the West.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek mekon (’moon’) and opsis (’resembling’), referring to the round, yellowish petals of the Welsh poppy, which French botanist Louis Viguier (1790-1867) separated from the genus Papaver in 1814, renaming it Meconopsis cambrica, mainly due to the structure of its style. However, a phylogenetic study from 2011 concluded that the Welsh poppy belongs to the genus Papaver.

 

The specific name refers to the inflorescence, which is a huge panicle, shown in pictures on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Another species is restricted to Laos and Vietnam, whereas the remaining 8 species are indigenous to North America, where they are usually called sycamores, likewise referring to the leaves, which resemble those of the European sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus).

Several species are described on the page Plants: Ancient and huge trees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for strawberry. The English name is derived from the verb to strew, in allusion to the dense tangle of the plant’s stems, creeping over the ground.

A number of strawberry species are presented on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

In Nepal, juice of the plant is taken to curb profuse menstruation, and the unripe fruit is chewed for blemishes on the tongue. The ripe fruits are edible, but have a watery taste.

The specific name is derived from the Latin nubis (‘cloud’ or ‘sky’) and colo (‘to inhabit’). However, this plant usually grows at medium elevations.

 

 

 

 

 

According to efloras.org/Flora of China, Photinia includes about 60 species, found from the Indian Subcontinent eastwards to China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia, and also some species in Mexico, whereas Stranvaesia has about six species, found from the Himalaya eastwards to Southeast Asia and China.

These plants belong to the subtribe Malinae, and the fruit is a pome, similar to that of apples and pears.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek photeinos, meaning ‘shining’, referring to the glossy leaves.

 

 

 

 

Inflorescences are small clusters of white flowers, to 6 mm across, and the fruit is red, about 6 mm across. It is illustrated below in the section Fruits: Pomes.

The specific name was given in honour of French naturalist Armand David (1826-1900), who made huge collections of various groups of animals while working as a missionary in China 1862-1874.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows to 20 m tall, with a thick, fissured bark on older specimens. The leaves are ovate to heart-shaped, long-pointed, finely toothed, to 25 cm long and 15 cm broad, with a very long stalk, to 13 cm.

It is widely cultivated in Tibetan areas, where its wood is used for construction, the branches to make roofs, and the foliage for fodder. A paste of the bark is applied to muscular swellings.

Other pictures, depicting this species, are shown on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 3.

The specific name refers to the hairy leaf margin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This tree is named for Mount Morrison, today called Yu Shan (‘Jade Mountain’), at 3952 m the highest mountain in the Far East. Originally, this mountain was named for Robert Morrison (1782-1834), a Scottish Protestant missionary, who worked in Macao, Guangdong, and the Malaccan Peninsula.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with minute teeth’, alluding to the leaf margin, originally from serratus (‘sawn’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name honours German naturalist Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter (1733-1806), professor of natural history at Karlsruhe.

 

According to Kew Gardens, this species is divided into 2 subspecies, elegans, which is native to the Fiji Islands, and formosana, which is endemic to Taiwan. It seems strange that it should occur in these two widely separated areas, but nowhere else, so maybe they constitute two species. Or the plant was brought to Fiji by people?

Subspecies formosana is widely planted elsewhere in the tropics and subtropics as a city tree. It has escaped in several places, and is regarded as an invasive plant in eastern Australia and Hawaii.

In autumn, this tree is also attractive, when it displays an abundance of reddish, purplish, or yellowish fruits, presented below in the section Fruits: Capsules.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin name of a European species, V. lantana.

In the past, this genus was placed in the family Sambucaceae, but was then transferred to the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae). However, recent genetic studies have caused it to be moved yet another time, to the moschatel family.

Several members are presented on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

 

In Ukraine, this species is a national symbol, and also an emblem for the concept of a young girl’s love and tenderness.

In herbal medicine, a decoction of the bark was given for rheumatism, arthritis, and stomach and leg cramps.

The specific name is derived from Gaulish opolos (‘maple’), alluding to the maple-like leaves. The name Guelder rose relates to the Dutch province of Gelderland, where a popular cultivar, the snowball tree, supposedly originated.

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants are distributed from Europe eastwards to Xinjiang and Tibet, southwards to northern Africa and Iran.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of these plants, derived from Ancient Greek aron, the name of A. italicum.

 

Although the berries look inviting, they are poisonous and should not be eaten or used in cooking.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘spotted’, referring to the leaves often having dark spots.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, the berries were an important source of vitamin C, and jam was made from them. The bark yields a yellow dye.

In Ancient Egypt, the bark was used against infections – a usage which is still employed today. The plant was brought to Europe by the Moors, and during the Middle Ages it was used as a tonic, an antiseptic, and a laxative. Berries are astringent, and a drink, made from crushed fruits, is taken for sore throat.

Among American natives, a decoction of the root was drunk in case of cough or stomach trouble, and a decoction of the bark was used to bathe wounds.

This species is an alternative host for stem rust (Puccinia graminis), which affects crops like wheat and barley, in humid and warm summers often causing huge losses. In the early twentieth century, the United States government carried out an eradication campaign, which largely eliminated common barberry, and by the early 1980s, stem rust was not a big problem. In 1999, however, a more potent type of stem rust was discovered in Africa, so planting of barberry, which is a popular ornamental, is discouraged in the U.S.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was given in honour of German botanist Adam Lonicer (1528-1586), whereas the name honeysuckle stems from the sweet nectar in the flowers. Some species are indeed fragrant, and several are cultivated as ornamentals. One of the cultivated species, Japanese honeysuckle (L. japonica), often escapes and has become invasive in many places, described on the page Nature: Invasive species.

 

This climber has distinctive leaves, which grow in pairs up the stem, the uppermost pairs fused at the base to form ‘umbrellas’, which surround the stem. In former days, the indigenous Pomo tribe made pipes from the hollow and sturdy stems.

Hairy honeysuckle is often cultivated as an ornamental due to the beautiful pink flowers, which attract hummingbirds, whereas other birds eat the bright red berries.

The specific name is derived from the Latin hispidus (‘hairy’, ‘bristly’) and ulus, a diminutive suffix, thus ‘with small, bristly hairs’.

 

 

 

 

 

The creamy-white or yellowish flowers, often flushed with pink or red on the outside, emit a wonderful fragrance at night, which attracts a multitude of moths and long-tongued bees that pollinate them. They develop into bright red berries, which are much favoured by various birds. In the old days, children would suck the nectar from the base of the flowers.

In his play A Midsummer Night’s Dream, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) refers once or twice to the honeysuckle:

“Quite overcanopied with luscious woodbine.”

“So doth the woodbine the sweet honeysuckle gently entwine.”

In the second quotation, the word woodbine probably refers to the vigorous hedge bindweed (Calystegia sepium). In fact, this may also be the species mentioned in the first quotation!

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek peri (‘around’) and klymenon (‘honeysuckle’), referring to the entwining habit of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its fruit is a drupe with a fleshy outer layer, surrounding a hard shell. As mentioned above, it resembles an almond fruit, but is more reddish.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sea-buckthorn berries are yellow, orange, or red, growing in dense clusters along the branches. They are edible, being a rich source of vitamins C, A, B, E, and K, and also of carotenoids. Lately, research has shown that they may have anti-ageing and memory-restoring properties.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek hippos (‘horse’) and faos (‘light’, ‘shining’). As legend has it, troops of Alexander the Great noticed that sick or injured horses, which ate leaves and fruit of these plants, recovered faster, and their pelt became shining.

Some members of the genus are described on the page Plants: Himalayan flora 1.

 

The specific name means ‘resembling Rhamnus‘ (buckthorn).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Many of these plants are characterized by the smooth orange or reddish bark, and stiff, twisting branches.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek arktos (‘bear’) and staphyle (‘a bunch of grapes’), referring to the fact that bears are fond of the fruits. The popular name manzanita is Spanish, diminutive of manzana (‘apple’), likewise referring to the fruits.

The crimson autumn foliage of the alpine bearberry (A. alpina) is shown in a picture atop this page.

 

The branches of this shrub, which may grow to 5 m tall, are hairy (hence its name), and the grey or greyish-green leaves are oval-shaped, to 6 cm long and 3 cm wide. The fruit is a red drupe, to 1 cm in diameter. The seeds will only germinate, if they are exposed to fire, or if they have been through the gut of some browsing animal.

Hybrids between this species and red bearberry (below) commonly occur where the two parent species grow together. It is often referred to as Arctostaphylos x media.

 

 

 

 

 

Traditionally, this species was utilized by native American tribes who used the leaves as an antiseptic in urinary tract problems. Tea was made from dried leaves and used as an astringent and a laxative.

The specific name is derived from the Latin uva (‘a bunch of grapes’) and ursus (‘bear’), thus a Latin repetition of the Greek generic name. Maybe bears are especially fond of the bright red fruits of this species!

A widely used common name in America is kinnikinnick, an Algonquin word that covers any type of tobacco substitutes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is widely distributed in temperate and subarctic areas of the entire Northern Hemisphere. Everywhere, it has traditionally been utilized to make jam and jelly, and medicinally it has been used as an astringent and diuretic, to control bleeding, and to treat various other diseases, including diabetes, rheumatism, and genital disorders. Among native American tribes, it was eaten to treat colds, cough, and sore throat. Others used the bright red berries as necklaces.

The specific name is derived from the Latin vitis (‘grapevine’), and idaea, the feminine form of idaeus, which literally means ‘from Mount Ida’. In this context, however, it probably means ‘the grape-like raspberry’ (see Rubus idaeus below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for mulberry.

 

The edible and sweet berries are white at first, later dark purple, resembling fruits of bramble (Rubus fruticosus, below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The delicious fruits are an ingredient in countless cakes and desserts, and much utilized to make jam and wine. A kind of liqueur is made from an extract of berries and crushed stones.

 

 

 

 

 

The fruits occur in a wide variety of colours: yellow, pink, and numerous shades of red and purple, often produced abundantly. If they are not picked by people, they remain on the tree, until they are over-ripe and fall to the ground. Wild birds are not at all able to eat all these berries, which often lie almost in layers on the ground beneath the tree. Rotting cherry plums are much praised by butterflies and wasps.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek kerasos (‘cherry’), and the Latin ferus (‘wild’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An example of the natural succession of a wild growth of sloe is presented on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.

Due to its numerous nasty spines, this species was formerly utilized as cattle-proof hedges. The small bluish-black fruit is very astringent, but after freezing it can be made into jam, jelly, and chutney. In certain areas of Britain, they are added to gin, and in Navarra, northern Spain, a popular liqueur, pacharán, is made with sloe.

The specific name is from the Latin spina (‘thorn’) and osus (‘full of’), whereas the popular name blackthorn refers to the very dark bark of this shrub, and, of course, to the thorns. The word sloe is from Old English slah, stemming from Ancient Germanic slaihwo, which refers to any type of plum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants are widely distributed in temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with a few tropical species in eastern Africa and southern and south-eastern Asia.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for rose.

 

The specific is Latin, meaning ‘of a dog’, referring to an old belief that the root of dog rose was regarded as a cure, in case you were bitten by a mad dog.

The pictures below are all from Nature Reserve Vorsø, Denmark, where dog rose is abundant.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is native to Europe and western Asia, but has been widely introduced elsewhere. In New Zealand, South Africa, and parts of Australia, it is regarded as an invasive.

Sweet briar is cultivated in several countries, in Tunisia to produce fragrant water, in Spain, Chile, and Argentina to make marmalade and as an additive to cosmetics. Tea made from the hips is rich in vitamin C and other nutrients. During World War II, a common British expression was: “We are getting by on our hips and hops” – the hips to make tea, the hops to make beer. (Source: C. Daley 2002. Skyline to Shoreline. Xlibris)

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘rust-coloured’. It is not clear what it refers to.

In Old English, briar, or brier, is a thorny shrub, and sweet refers to the fragrant leaves. The name eglantine stems from eglentyn, a corruption of Old French aiglantin, the adjective form of aiglent, the French name of sweet briar, which is again borrowed from the Latin aculentus, of acus (‘needle’), of course referring to the thorns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It prefers to grow in open areas, where it can form large stands, an example of which is described on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness. It may also grow in forests, but does not thrive as well there. In warmer countries, it mainly grows in higher mountains.

The specific name refers to its occurrence on Mount Ida, north-western Turkey, where Ancient Greeks were familiar with it. (Source: A. Huxley (ed.) 1992. New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan)

The closely related American red raspberry, variously treated as a separate species, named R. strigosus, or as a variety of European raspberry, is widespread in North America.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (‘many’) and carpos (‘fruit’) – a most suitable name!

A popular name is Chinese wonder tree, alluding to its abundance of red berries. In Taiwan, between December and February, these berries draw birds like a magnet, including species like small vivid niltava (Niltava vivida), Taiwan barbet (Psilopogon nuchalis), and Taiwan thrush (Turdus niveiceps). These birds are presented on the page Animals – Birds: Birds in Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is of unknown origin, possibly derived from the Latin sol (’sun’), referring to the fact that these plants prefer to grow in sunny places. The popular name is a corruption of an ancient Germanic name of these plants, Nachtschatten, of unknown meaning. As Schatten also means ‘shadow’ in German, the name nightshade was introduced, but this seems to be a misnomer.

A number of nightshade species are described on the pages Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry, and In praise of the colour orange.

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin dulcis (‘sweet’) and‎ amarus (‘bitter’), alluding to the sweet, but poisonous berries.

 

 

 

 

 

This species is very variable. Plants in northern Europe are usually small, unbranched herbs, whereas other subspecies have densely branched, very long, woody stems.

Some subspecies contain a toxic alkaloid, solanin, but the content varies tremendously between the subspecies, and non-toxic forms are eaten as a vegetable in several Asian countries. In former times, non-toxic forms were also eaten as spinach around the Mediterranean. Ripe berries are eaten raw in several African and Asian countries.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘black’, alluding to the black berries.

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, plants with this type of fruit were placed in a separate family, Malaceae, which is today regarded as a subtribe, Malinae, of the rose family (Rosaceae).

The word pome is derived from the Latin pomum (‘fruit’, later ‘apple’), which was adopted by the French as pome (‘apple’), today spelled pomme. The word pome entered English in the late 14th Century, referring to an apple or an apple-shaped object.

In everyday speech, pomes of a number of species, including hawthorns (below), are referred to as ‘berries’.

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kratos, meaning ‘hardness’, which refers to the hard wood of these plants.

The prefix haw is an old word for ‘enclosure’ or ‘hedge’, and hawthorn was formerly widely used as a hedge plant. The name whitethorn arose from the whiteness of the bark, whereas the name mayflower refers to the main blooming time of these plants. Incidentally, the first ship to bring English settlers to North America, in 1620, was named Mayflower.

Formerly, it was widely believed that hawthorn flowers bore the smell of the Great Plague of London (1665-1666), and witches were said to hide among its foliage. Others regarded the hawthorn as sacred, probably from a belief that it furnished the Crown of Thorns that Jesus was wearing at the Crucifixion.

In the old days, a liqueur was made from the fruits with brandy. Small tools and other items were carved from the hard wood, which also makes excellent fuel.

Hawthorn species are described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘having been made smooth’. It is not clear what it refers to. The obsolete specific name is derived from Ancient Greek oxus (‘sharp’) and akantha (‘thorn’).

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from from Ancient Greek monos (‘single’) and gyne (‘female’), referring to the fact that the flower has only one style.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for apple trees, derived from Ancient Greek malon (‘apple’).

Apples play a significant role in Greek, Norse, and Christian mythologies. More about this issue is found on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

In England, the apple was first mentioned by King Alfred in about 885, in his translation of Liber Regulae Pastoralis (‘The Book of Pastoral Rules’, also known as ‘Gregory’s Pastoral Care’), a treatise on the responsibilities of the clergy, written by Pope Gregory I around 590.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘dwarf’. What it refers to is not clear.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from the Latin silva (‘forest’), thus ‘growing in forests’. However, crab apple thrives best in sunny conditions and is mainly found at forest edges. The small fruits are pure yellow, as opposed to domestic apples (above), most of which are more or less red.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in forests’, derived from silva (‘forest’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for hazel trees.

 

Usually, it is a large shrub or a small tree, growing to about 10 m tall, occasionally to 15 m. It prefers sunny places, and specimens in forests are often low and stunted. The ovoid nut, to 2 cm long, is partly covered by a leafy involucre, called the husk.

The succession of a wild growth of hazel is described on the page Nature Reserve Vorsø: Expanding wilderness.

The specific name was given by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who took this name from De historia stirpium commentarii insignes, published in 1542 by German physician and botanist Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566), in which it was described as Avellana nux sylvestris (‘forest nut of Avella’, a town in southern Italy). In turn, that appellation was taken from Naturalis Historia, by Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.).

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek karyon (‘nut’).

 

Otherwise, this species is much utilized. The wood is used for a large number of items, including timber, charcoal, tool handles, poles, shafts, well pumps, furniture, and pallets, and sawdust and chips are used for smoking meat products.

Mockernut hickory is the most abundant of all hickories, distributed in the south-eastern United States, from Iowa eastwards to Vermont, southwards to eastern Texas and northern Florida.

The specific name is from the Latin tomentum, meaning ‘covered with short hairs’, referring to the densely hairy underside of the leaves. The name mockernut refers to the fact that the fruits are large, but have very small kernels.

 

 

 

 

 

 

American tanoak is mainly found along the Pacific Coast in Oregon and California, with scattered occurrence inland in the Sierra Nevada. It is a large tree, up to 40 m high, with a trunk diameter up to 1.9 m.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek nothos (‘bastard’), lithos (‘stone’), and karpos (‘fruit’), thus ‘the false Lithocarpus’. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘dense-flowered’. The common name alludes to the former usage of the bark for tanning leather.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The leathery leaves of this species are entire or toothed, glossy green above, young leaves covered in yellowish down beneath, often turning grey and almost hairless the second year.

The acorns vary quite a lot, but are mostly ovoid, with a shallow, turban-like, scaly cup, densely covered in yellowish hairs, which have given rise to the specific name, from Ancient Greek khrysos (‘gold’) and lepis (‘scale’). After leaching of the tannins, the acorns were a staple food of many indigenous tribes. They have also been used as a coffee substitute.

 

 

 

 

 

This species was named in honour of Nicholas Garry (1782-1856), who was deputy governor of the Hudson Bay Company 1822-1835.

 

 

 

 

 

It can be told from the common oak (below) by its darker, shiny, less indented leaves. It has sessile acorns, whereas common oak has long-stalked acorns. On the other hand, the leaves of common oak are almost sessile, whereas sessile oak has clearly stalked leaves.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek petraios (‘growing in rocky places’), ultimately from petra (‘rock’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The gorgeous fruits are red, pink, or purplish capsules, opening late in the autumn to reveal the black seeds, which are coated with a fleshy orange layer. These fruits look very inviting indeed, but the seeds contain highly toxic alkaloids, and several cases of poisoning of children have been reported.

A close relative, the eastern burning-bush (E. atropurpureus), is presented above in the section East American autumn foliage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its fruit is a three-lobed capsule with three valves. When the fruit is mature, the walls of the capsule fall off, revealing three round seeds, covered in a white tallow.

When ripe, the fruits are eagerly sought out by various birds, including brown-headed thrush (Turdus chrysolaus), grey treepie (Dendrocitta formosae), tree sparrow (Passer montanus), and Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus), all described on the page Animals – Birds: Birds in Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its fruits are capsules, which are initially green and succulent, later turning dark brown and dry. They split along six or seven lines, to release the numerous small and winged seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its fruit is a reddish, purplish, or yellowish, three-lobed capsule, containing a few black seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kirsion, according to Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (died 90 A.D.) the name of a kind of thistle, derived from kirsos (‘swollen vein’), alluding to its usage against swollen veins.

 

Due to its numerous creeping underground stems, it is a most troublesome weed. Just a tiny bit of underground stem is able to produce a large colony of plants, sending up stems at regular intervals.

In his delightful book All about Weeds, American botanist Edwin Spencer (1881-1964) writes: “(…) it is, perhaps, the worst weed of the entire United States. (…) Its seeds serve as food for goldfinches and sparrows, but even this good turn is offset by the fact that the birds, in getting their food, set free the winged seeds, and wherever those seeds fall trouble begins. The plant is outlawed in every northern State; thirty-seven States in all legislate against this rogue, but outlawing it has had very little effect upon it.”

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in fields’, derived from arvus (‘cultivated land’).

 

 

 

 

 

Apomictic (asexual) reproduction is very common in dandelions, resulting in an abundance of species and micro-species, more than 2,500 worldwide, mainly in the subarctic and temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, a few in temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere.

Dandelion was first mentioned as a medicinal herb by Arabian physicians in the 10th or 11th Century, who called it a sort of wild endive (Cichorium), under the name of tharakhchakon, which was corrupted to Taraxacum. In French, these plants were named dent de lion (‘lion’s tooth’), alluding to the often strongly serrated leaves. This name was adopted by the English, corrupted to dandelion.

The names monks-head and priest’s-crown were commonly used in the Middle Ages, an allusion to the naked flower disc, which resembles a monk’s or a Catholic priest’s shorn head. The names pee-a-bed and wet-a-bed (and the French name piss-en-lit) allude to its diuretic properties, whereas blowball refers to the popular game of blowing off the seeds.

 

Young leaves have a high content of vitamin C and are used in salads, and they may also be boiled as a vegetable or in soups. In Wales, the two-year-old root is chopped up and mixed with the leaves in salads. In Berkshire and Worcestershire, and in Scandinavia, wine is made from the flowers. The root is dried and pounded to make substitute coffee.

Girls often make garlands of the flowering stems, placing them around their hair, and a popular game among children as well as adults is to try blowing off the seeds of a flowerhead, all at once. Formerly, all kinds of divinations were connected with the ability to blow off the seeds.

Originally, the specific name was derived from officina (‘workshop’, or ‘office’), and the suffix alis, which, together with a noun, forms an adjective, thus ‘made in a workshop’. However, in a botanical context, the word denotes plants species that were sold in pharmacies due to their medicinal properties.

Dandelion is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek tragos (‘goat’) and pogon (‘beard’). In some species, the involucral bracts contract before noon, which has given rise to a popular name of these plants, Jack-go-to-bed-by-noon. During this contraction, the pappus (seed hairs) protrude from the flowerhead, hereby resembling a goat’s beard.

The name salsify is a corruption of late 17th Century French salsifis, from obsolete Italian salsefica, of unknown origin.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘growing in meadows’, derived from pratum (‘meadow’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

It has pretty flowerheads with pinkish-blue rayflorets and yellow disc florets, and in fruit it is also attractive with small dense balls of fluffy seeds.

The specific name refers to Pannonia, an ancient Roman province in Central Europe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is a long capsule, splitting longitudinally, and the seeds have long hairs, an adaptation for wind-spreading.

The generic name may have originated as early as 1561. It is derived from Ancient Greek khamai (‘near the ground’) and nerion, the classical Greek name of the oleander (Nerium oleander), alluding to the oleander-like leaves of rosebay willow-herb (below).

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘narrow-leaved’.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was used as early as 1561 for E. angustifolium (today Chamaenerion angustifolium, above) by Swiss physician and naturalist Conrad Gessner (1516-1565) in his unfinished work Historia plantarum. He composed the name from Ancient Greek ion epi lobion (‘violet on a pod’), lobion literally meaning ‘fruit of the cowpea’ (Vigna unguiculata), alluding to the similarity of the flower colour to that of certain violets (Viola), and to its pod-like fruit.

The common name refers to the similarity of the leaves of some species to those of certain species of willow (Salix).

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’, alluding to the numerous glandular hairs in the inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The inflorescence is a catkin, with numerous tiny flowers clustered around a central axis, each flower surrounded by papery bracts. Catkins are erect, pollinated by bees and other insects. Willows and their close relatives, the poplars (Populus), produce seeds with a fluffy appendix, and at times, the air is filled with millions of flying seeds from these two genera.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of willows. It probably stems from the word sal (‘salt’). However, the original meaning of sal was ‘grey’ or ‘smudged’. In the old days, salt was not white, but dirty-grey – just like the colour of the bark of the grey willow (S. cinerea).

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek pente (‘five’), referring to the male flowers, which have five stamens. The common name refers to the glossy, dark green leaves, which resemble those bay laurel (Laurus nobilis).

 

 

 

 

 

 

The inflorescence is very distinctive, situated on a long spike, male flowers above, females below, both very densely clustered. The female part evolves into a hard, brown, cylindrical mass of seeds, which are spread by the wind in late autumn, winter, or the following spring.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of bulrushes.

These plants have many other common names, including cattail, cat-o’-nine-tails, and reedmace. The fanciful name cat-o’-nine-tails was given in allusion to a whip called cat o’ nine tails, or just the cat, which consisted of nine knotted ropes, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain. This medieval type of punishment was formerly widely used in the British Royal Navy and Army. The name probably refers to the leaves of common bulrush (below), which often stand erect side by side, and may thus resemble this type of whip. The name cattail refers to the shape of the inflorescence.

 

Peeled stems and leaf bases, and also young flower spikes, can be eaten raw or cooked. The rhizomes are also edible after cooking and removing the skin.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘broad-leaved’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It often grows in large colonies, preferably along streams or in other humid areas. It is widely distributed in temperate regions of Eurasia, southwards to Italy, Turkey, Iran, and southern China.

The generic name was given in honour of Italian physicist Carlo Matteucci (1811-1863), who worked at the University of Florence.

The specific and common names refer to the green fronds, which, when they are young, resemble wing feathers of the ostrich. The spores are borne on separate fronds, which are highly modified, with leaves without chlorophyll curled over the sporangia. These fronds are dark brown, or sometimes even purplish, when ripe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek poly (‘many’) and pous (‘foot’), in allusion to the many equal lobes on the leaf.

 

In former days, polypody was utilized as food, and also used in folk medicine as a purgative and vermifuge.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In 1988, I participated in an expedition, the main purpose of which was to estimate numbers of wintering waders and other birds along the Tanzanian coast. This trip is related in detail on the page Travel episodes – Tanzania 1988: Experiencing African bureaucracy.

 

It spends the winter along shores in temperate, subtropical, and tropical areas, as far south as southern South America, South Africa, and Australia.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘white’, referring to its white winter plumage. The popular name is derived from Old English sand-yrðling (‘sand-ploughman’), referring to its feeding habit, running along sandy shores while constantly sinking its bill into the sand in search of food.

 

 

 

 

 

During surveys of waders and other water birds along the coast of Tanzania in 1988 and 1989, we counted about 21,000 curlew sandpipers, corresponding to about 86 birds per km. Our ‘guesstimate’ was that around 100,000 individuals of this species winter along the Tanzanian coast. (Source: Petersen, I.K., T. Bregnballe, K. Halberg & O. Thorup 1989. Tanzania Wader Survey. A preliminary report of the Danish-Tanzanian ICBP-expedition 1988. Copenhagen University)

The specific name is derived from the Latin ferrugo (‘iron rust’), from ferrum (‘iron’), given in allusion to its rusty-red breast in the breeding plumage. The common name refers to its down-curved bill, slightly reminiscent of the bill of the curlew (Numenius arquata).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When the breeding season begins, the males gather on an arena on a grassy spot, a so-called lek. When a female arrives at the arena, the males start fighting (in deep silence) to attract the attention of the female. She walks around to survey the entire group before choosing a male, which will mate with her. She then leaves to take care of nest-building, incubating, and chick-rearing by herself.

As a breeding bird, this species is widely distributed in Arctic, sub-Arctic, and northern temperate areas, from eastern England across northern Europe and Siberia, eastwards to around the Kolyma River. There are also scattered populations in Central Asia.

European populations have declined drastically in later years due to draining and overgrowth of suitable habitats.

The wintering area includes southern and western Europe, Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, southern Asia, and to some degree Australia.

Formerly, this species was named Philomachus pugnax, but genetic research has shown that it is closely related to Calidris sandpipers. The former generic name is derived from Ancient Greek philos (‘loving’) and makhomai (‘to fight’), whereas the specific name is derived from the Latin pugno (‘I fight’) and ax (‘inclined to’).

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name was given in honour of French botanist and ornithologist Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour (1773-1826), who travelled widely in Java, India, and South America, bringing large collections of plants and birds back to France.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is unique among waders, nesting in burrows in sandy areas and making use of the ground heat to aid incubation of the eggs. In winter, it disperses across the Indian Ocean, eastwards to the Andaman Islands and the coast of Cambodia, and along East African coasts as far south as northern South Africa and Madagascar.

Tanzania constitutes a core area for this species in winter. During an expedition in 1988 (see page Travel episodes – Tanzania 1988: Experiencing African bureaucracy), we counted about 5,400 crab plovers along the Tanzanian coast.

The generic name is Greek, meaning ‘running’. The bird is often seen running fast, before taking off. The specific name is derived from the Latin ardea (‘heron’) and -ola, a suffix denoting something diminutive, thus ‘small heron’, perhaps alluding to the long legs of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is from the Latin pluvia (‘rain’). Formerly, it was believed that when golden plovers (P. apricaria) flocked, it would mean imminent rain. The specific name is a Latinized version of sgatarola, an old Venetian name for a kind of plover.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name was applied to the green sandpiper (T. ochropus) by Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522-1599), who was the founder of the botanical garden of Bologna – one of the first of its kind. The name is derived from Ancient Greek trungas, the term for a thrush-sized, tail-bobbing wading bird, mentioned by Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). (Source: J.A. Jobling 2010. The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names)

The specific name is derived from the Latin brevis (‘short’) and pes (‘foot’), whereas the popular name tattler was given in allusion to its call.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek xenos (‘stranger’), whereas the specific name is derived from the Latin cinis (‘ashes’), referring to its ash-grey back in winter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The white-fronted goose is divided into five subspecies, breeding along the entire northern Siberian coastal areas, in Alaska and northern Canada, and western Greenland. The wintering areas include northern Ireland, northern Scotland, Holland, northern Germany, Hungary, the northern Black Sea coast, Iraq, the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, Japan, Korea, south-eastern China, southern United States, and northern Mexico.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The light-bellied brent, ssp. hrota, known as Atlantic brant in North America, breeds in Franz Josef Land, Svalbard, Greenland, and north-eastern Canada, wintering in Denmark, north-eastern England, Ireland, and the Atlantic coast of America, from Maine southwards to Georgia.

The black-bellied brent, ssp. nigricans, known as Pacific brant in North America, breeds in north-western Canada, Alaska, and eastern Siberia. Most American birds spend the winter along the Pacific Coast, from southern Alaska southwards to California, whereas Siberian birds winter along the Pacific Coast of Asia, mainly in Japan.

The specific name stems from Medieval times, when it was generally believed that brent geese and barnacle geese (which were regarded as one species) hatched from goose barnacles, a type of crustaceans. Gerald of Wales (c. 1146-1223), Archdeacon of Brecon, claims to have seen these geese hanging down from pieces of timber, and English botanist John Gerard (c. 1545-1612) claims to have seen the birds emerging from goose barnacle shells. This superstition vanished by the end of the 1700s, but the name barnacle goose persisted (see below).