Animal tracks and traces

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is common in much of eastern and southern Africa. Two subspecies are recognized, the nominate, which is distributed from southern Uganda and central Kenya southwards to eastern South Africa and the major part of Namibia, and subspecies petersi, known as black-faced impala, which is restricted to north-western Namibia and south-western Angola. This subspecies can be identified by the black markings on its face.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek aipus (‘high’ or ‘steep’) and keras (‘horn’), referring to the long horns of the male, whereas the specific name is from the Greek melas (‘black’) and pous (‘foot’), alluding to the black spots on its hind feet. The name impala is a corruption of the Tswana word phala, which means ‘red antelope’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

However, between 1928 and 1958, at least 10,000 raccoon dogs were released at various locations in the Soviet Union in an attempt to improve their fur quality. Many of these feral populations increased rapidly, and the species has spread to most countries in Europe, where it is regarded as invasive, being a threat to many breeding birds.

 

 

 

 

 

It has also been introduced to Australia, where it has become a menace to indigenous mammals and birds, and is regarded as highly invasive.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These animals construct an underwater den beneath a huge pile of branches, which they have collected themselves. The den is made waterproof by stuffing water plants, twigs, leaves, and soil between the larger branches. In late autumn, the beavers collect a winter supply of branches, which are kept inside the den to serve as winter food for the animals.

 

In 1937, 7 Canadian beavers were introduced to Finland, where they were released with the intention of letting them crossbreed with the local European beavers, to supplement the declining population.

However, the two species are not able to interbreed due to differences in their chromosome numbers, and today the European beaver has been replaced in most locations in Finland by the stronger Canadian beaver.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, it has been reintroduced to many areas, occurring in Scotland, and from northern Scandinavia southwards to France and thence eastwards across Russia and Kazakhstan to Sinkiang.

 

 

 

 

 

On the page Animals – Mammals: Monkeys and apes, many genera of this family are described.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Deer are characterized by shedding their horns, called antlers, annually, when the mating season is over. While new ones emerge, they are covered by a layer of skin, called velvet. When the new antlers are complete, the velvet dies, creating an intense itching. To relieve this itching, the deer brushes the antlers against bushes or young trees, causing the velvet to loosen and fall off. This behaviour is called fraying. This fraying is often so violent that the bark of younger trees is removed all the way around the trunk, and the plant dies.

Many deer species use the same routes every day when foraging, and, over time, animal paths, called tracks, evolve.

Some species of deer have a habit of scraping aside withered leaves and vegetation, before they lie down on the forest floor.

Deer often wallow in mud to protect themselves from stinging insects.

Other information on this family is found on the page Animals – Mammals: Deer.

 

From Ukraine and the northern flanks of the Caucasus, eastwards through the taiga zone to the Pacific Ocean, and also in Tibet, Korea, and Manchuria, this species is replaced by the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus). Formerly, these deer were regarded as a single species, but today most authorities recognize them as separate species. The Siberian roe deer is larger, with longer, more branched antlers than the European roe deer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In recent years, this species has increased significantly in numbers in Jutland, Denmark, where these pictures were taken.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is regarded as an invasive in Finland and New Zealand, and also in parts of its native United States. You may read more about this issue on the page Nature: Invasive species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These caves are famous for housing huge colonies of bats (more than a quarter of a million in Gomantong), and also hundreds of thousands of swiftlets of the genus Aerodramus. The guano from these bats and birds have accumulated on the floor of the caves, forming a thick layer.

Various animals, including cave cockroaches (Pycnoscelus striatus) and water scavenger beetles (Cerycon gebioni), feed on this guano, while others feed on dead bats and swiftlets.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This rodent is widely distributed, from northern Scandinavia and Siberia southwards to Italy, Greece, Turkey, northern Iran, and Kazakhstan, and from the British Isles eastwards to eastern Siberia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is distributed in all of Europe, except Iceland, Ireland, southern Spain, Italy, and the Balkans, and thence eastwards across Siberia to east of Lake Baikal. In the Alps, it is found up to about 1,700 m altitude.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This magnificent tree is described on the page Plants: Ancient and huge trees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Today, however, the population of subspecies beringei, which counts only about 900 individuals, is the only great ape in the world that has increased in number lately, whereas subspecies graueri has been severely affected by human activities, most notably poaching for commercial trade of bushmeat. This illegal hunting has been facilitated by a proliferation of firearms from the various wars in this region.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, western Tanzania, were made famous by celebrated primatologist Jane Goodall (born 1934) – the first person to study these apes in depth.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is described in depth on the page Nature: Invasive species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The family name is derived from the Latin mus (genitive muris), meaning ‘mouse’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From western Russia eastwards across Central Asia to Ussuriland, Korea, and China, it is replaced by the paler Asian badger (Meles leucurus), and in Japan by the Japanese badger (Meles anakuma), which is brownish, with very faint facial stripes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Formerly, the northern elephant seal was hunted extensively for its blubber, from which oil was made. By 1869, it had almost been extirpated, and around 1890 only one group, comprising about 100 animals, was known to exist. However, it managed to survive, and since the early 20th century it has been protected by law in Mexico and the United States. Subsequently, it has now recovered, counting more than 200,000 individuals. Today, it occurs in scattered colonies along the Pacific Coast, from Baja California to the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The word raccoon was adopted by settlers in Virginia, a corruption of a Powhatan term, meaning ‘the animal that scratches with its hands’. It was variously written as aroughcun or arathkone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rhino parts have been used as ingredients in traditional Asian medicine for at least 2000 years, and today all 5 species are critically endangered due to widespread poaching, in Asia also due to habitat loss. This issue is described in depth on the page Folly of Man.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the early 1990s, the entire population was estimated at less than 1,900 individuals. Since then, numbers have increased due to conservation measures, and today the population as around 3,500 individuals. The absolute stronghold of the species is Kaziranga National Park in Assam, which holds more than 2,000. Another area with many rhinos is Chitwan National Park in southern Nepal, which holds about 650 individuals.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek rhis (‘nose’) and keras (‘horn’), thus ‘horn on the nose’. The specific name is Latin, derived from unus (‘one’) and‎ cornu (‘horn’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The family name is derived from Sciurus, the Latin name of these animals, in 1758 applied by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) to the Eurasian red squirrel (below). The word squirrel, which has been in use as early as 1327, is from the Anglo-Norman name esquirel, which is again from the Old French escurel, a corruption of the Latin sciurus, which is derived from Ancient Greek skia (‘shadow’) and oura (‘tail’), thus ‘shadow-tailed’, alluding to the habit of some squirrels to raise their bushy tails over the body, thus creating shade.

Many species of squirrel are presented on the page Animals – Mammals: Squirrels.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek erythros (‘red’), alluding to the belly, which is often – but not always – reddish.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Previously, this species was regarded as a subspecies of the widespread red giant flying squirrel (P. petaurista). However, recent genetic research has split that species into a number of separate species. The white-bellied was also formerly reported eastwards to the Yunnan Province, but eastern Himalayan animals are now recognized as belonging to a recently described separate species, the Yunnan giant flying squirrel (P. yunanensis).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This species is common and very widely distributed, from the major part of Europe eastwards across the Siberian taiga to the Kamchatka Peninsula, and thence along the Pacific coast southwards to north-eastern China, Korea, and the Japanese island Hokkaido. There are also scattered populations in Central Asia, and a separate population in the Caucasus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Apart from owls, very few animals eat shrews, as they undoubtedly taste extremely bad because of the strong, pungent smell, emitted from their anal gland. This smell is utilized to mark territory, create scent trails, communicate with other shrews, and, finally, as a defense mechanism. The latter is often not sufficient to deter carnivores from killing them, but the smell is so powerful that the carnivores will not eat them. This is why you so often come across dead shrews in nature.

 

 

It may be told from the water shrew by its smaller size, brownish back, and greyish belly.

In his delightful book The Naming of the Shrew (2014), English author John Wright says: “It may sound extraordinary, but until recently the shrew had a most fearsome reputation. The creature’s bite was likened to that of a spider – araneus in Latin. Both Aristotle¹ and Pliny² wrote of its venomous nature, and this belief continued down the centuries, gaining momentum as time went by. The general feeling was summed up neatly by the Reverend Topsell³ in his seventeenth-century History of Four-footed Beasts and Serpents: ‘It is a ravening beast, feighning itself gentle and tame, but, being touched, it biteth deep, and poisoneth deadly. It beareth a cruel minde, desiring to hurt anything, neither is there any creature that it loveth, or it loveth him, because it is feared of all.’

Not that an actual bite was considered necessary for the shrew to do its evil work. Elyot⁴ in 1538 wrote: ‘Mus araneus, a kynde of myse called a shrew, whyche, yf it goo ouer a beastes back, he shall be lame in the chyne.’ (Chyne here means ‘spine’).”

 

 

 

 

 

 

The domestic pig is described on the page Animals: Animals as servants of Man.

 

I once had a close encounter with a wild boar, see Travel episodes – Iran 1973: Car breakdown at the Caspian Sea.

An amusing account of wild boar, described by the famous hunter and conservationist Jim Corbett (1875-1955), is related on the page Quotes on Nature.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Moles are occasionally found dead, presumably killed by foxes, dogs, or cats. As they are not eaten, one may assume that they, like shrews, are ill-tasting.

In 1989, German professor Werner Holzwarth (born 1947) wrote a fantastic children’s book, Vom kleinen Maulwurf, der wissen wollte, wer ihm auf den Kopf gemacht hat, illustrated by Wolf Erlbruch (born 1948). In 1993, it was published in English, titled The Story of the Little Mole Who Went in Search of Whodunit. It tells the story about a mole who sticks his head out of his hole one morning, and gets a load of shit on his head. He then embarks on a journey to find the culprit. Read it and have a great laugh!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

African civets often defecate on the same spots, creating large heaps of dung, called ‘toilets’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

On this page, swifts are dealt with in the caption Chiroptera above.

 

 

 

The family name is from the Latin fringilla (‘finch’), derived from frigutio (‘I chirp’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Europe, the term swallow is mainly used for species with forked tails, martin mainly for species with squarish tails. In America, however, the term martin is reserved for members of the genus Progne.

 

The nests of these birds are placed many together at the end of tunnels, up to about 1.2 m long, which the birds dig into sand or gravel banks. This fact is reflected in the generic name, which is derived from the Latin ripa (‘riverbank’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name is from the Latin ridere (‘to laugh’), referring to one of its calls, ke-ke-ke, mostly heard in the breeding colonies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In later years, numbers of European herring gulls have increased significantly in cities, where the birds place their nest on top of high-rise buildings.

It is known that herring gulls often drop mussels on hard surfaces, so that the shells break, and the gull can extract the animal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These birds are widely distributed in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with a single species, the northern wheatear (below), also breeding in Greenland and eastern Canada, and in Alaska and western Canada.

The generic name is derived from the Greek oenos ‘wine’ and anthos (‘flower’), alluding to the northern wheatear returning from Africa to Greece in spring, when the grapevines blossom.

The common name is an old folk name of the northern wheatear, meaning ‘white arse’, referring to the conspicuous white rump of the bird.

 

The strange thing is that the entire population winters in Africa south of the Sahara. This means that birds from Greenland and eastern Canada cross the Atlantic, a distance of about 3,000 km. Birds from western Canada and Alaska fly all the way across Asia. One should think that evolution had caused some populations to choose other wintering areas, but this is not the case.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A number of cormorant species are described on the pages Animals – Birds: Birds in Africa, Birds in the United States and Canada, and Fishing.

 

The generic name is derived from the Greek phalakros (‘bald’) and korax (‘raven’), whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘coal’, thus ‘the coal-black, bald raven’. The word ‘bald’ refers to the white crown of the great cormorant during the breeding season. However, as the crown is feathered, the name is rather misleading. The word ‘raven’ presumably refers to its otherwise black plumage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

According to the latest genetic research, guineafowl and New World quails are treated as separate families, Numididae and Odontophoridae, respectively.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is also the state bird of Uttarakhand, northern India.

The specific name commemorates Lady Mary Impey, wife of Sir Elijah Impey (1732-1809), who was chief justice of the Supreme Court at Fort William, the first settlement of the British East India Company in Bengal.

As with most other gamebirds, the meat of monal is delicious, and for this reason it is hunted in many places. However, it is still common locally, and in the Khumbu area of eastern Nepal it is very common, as the local Buddhist Sherpas are against killing. So even though the monal does some damage by digging up potatoes and eating them, they are not persecuted here.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leaf-warblers are about 80 species of small insectivorous birds, all belonging to the genus Phylloscopus. Previously, the family included the genus Seicercus, but recent genetic studies concluded that members of this genus should be moved to Phylloscopus.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek phyllon (‘leaf’) and skopos, from skopeo (‘to watch’), in this connection presumably meaning ‘to search’ (for insects).

 

The common name alludes to the song of the bird, a plaintive chiff-chaff.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Due to its habit of drilling holes in the bark of trees to extract the sap, it was previously believed that this bird was related to the North American sapsuckers, genus Sphyrapicus, which have a similar way of feeding. The rufous-bellied woodpecker, however, is a genuine Dendrocopos species, and the similar habits are an example of convergent evolution.

 

 

 

 

 

Most populations are resident, but the northernmost birds are migratory. Some birds stray far from the usual distribution area, sometimes as far away as North America.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The term pileated refers to the prominent red crest of this bird, from the Latin pilleus (‘cap’) and atus (‘like’), thus ‘with a cap-like (crest)’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The word thrush is derived from Old English throstle, from Proto-Germanic þrustlō, an ancient name for the song thrush (Turdus philomelos). In Old Saxon, þrustlō became throsla, in German Drossel. The latter name was adopted by the Danes, whereas the Swedes use the name trast for these birds, and the Norwegians trost.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Populations of Scandinavia and Siberia are migratory, spending the winter in the British Isles, southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, and areas around the Caspian Sea.

The name fieldfare is derived from the 11th Century word feldefare, which, according to some authorities, means ‘traveller across the fields’. However, in a paper from 1855, On False Etymologies, in Transactions of the Philological Society (6): 69, H. Wedgwood points out that this is a false presumption. In reality, the name is derived from the old Anglo-Saxon name of the bird, feala-for, perhaps alluding to the tawny-yellow colour on the breast.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Although sea turtles spend about 98% of their life swimming about in the oceans, the females must get ashore, when they are about to lay eggs. With a great effort, they crawl ashore on a sandy beach, above the high tide line, where they dig a hole with their hind flippers.

When a female has finished digging, she lays a number of white eggs, often between 80 and 100. They resemble table tennis balls in shape, but are soft, so that they do not break when they fall into the hole. When the egg-laying is over, the female covers the eggs, throwing sand about with her flippers to camouflage the spot. Then she returns to the sea.

Some sea turtle species lay eggs several times in a season, in some cases up to 11 clutches.

 

 

 

 

 

The specific name alludes to the olive tinge on this otherwise brownish or greyish animal.

My experience with this animal is related on the page Animals – Reptiles and amphibians: Reptiles and amphibians in the Indian Subcontinent.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is of Semitic origin, meaning ‘dragon’ or ‘lizard beast’. The English name is explained in various ways. Some say it has its origin due to the occasional habit of these animals to stand on their two hind legs, seemingly ‘monitoring’ something. Others say that it arose from an old superstitious belief that they would warn people of the approach of venomous animals.

 

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘saviour’. Its origin is unexplained, but possibly indicates a religious connection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These bees differ from honey bees by digging nests in loose sand or gravel in sunny locations, e.g. on sandy roads or in heaths. They often breed many together, but each female digs her own nest, where she lays eggs, and then collects food for the larvae herself.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

One genus in the subfamily is Cassida, containing more than 430 species, distributed in the Old World. The generic name is derived from the Latin cassis (‘metal helmet’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The subfamily Scolytinae, called bark beetles, contains about 220 genera with around 6,000 species. Females lay eggs under the bark of various trees, where the feeding tunnels of the larvae create intricate patterns.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Africa, dung beetles are very common, often seen on various types of dung, which they form into balls, rolling them away to bury them and lay eggs in them.

As a boy, the famous naturalist and conservationist Gerald Durrell (1925-1995) was much intrigued by these beetles. His amusing account is related on the page Quotes on Nature.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These ants are famous for keeping underground ‘gardens’, where they grow fungi of the family Lepiotaceae. Using their mandibles, they cut leaf segments off plants, which they carry home to be used as nutrition for the fungi. The ants keep the fungi healthy by removing mold and parasites from them. Bacteria growing on the ants secrete chemicals, which act as pesticides. The ants are able to detect, if a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungi, and in that case they will no longer collect it.

The fungi are used as food for the ant larvae, whereas adult ants feed on leaf sap. The larvae need the fungi to stay alive, and the fungi need the ants to stay alive – a perfect example of symbiosis.

The nest, which can be as deep as 7 m, is placed in a way that allows a breeze to remove dangerous carbon dioxide emitted by the fungi. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafcutter_ant)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The name brush-footed butterflies refers to a brush-like set of hairs on the forelegs of a number of species. Another common name is four-footed butterflies, as many members are known to stand on only four legs. The forelegs are reduced and often curled up.

 

Caterpillars of this butterfly are very spiny indeed, deterring birds from eating them. They may also be poisonous, due to the toxic leaves they eat.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The caterpillars are gregarious, spinning silk webs and feeding on the leaves within them. When the larvae pupate, they spin silk cocoons around themselves, hanging vertically inside the web. These caterpillars often occur in such numbers that the host tree or bush becomes completely defoliated. In such cases, the larvae spin silk threads to the ground, where they pupate under plants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek areiones, a kind of snail or slug.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Previously, these animals were much feared, as they were able to destroy an entire ship over the years.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from the Greek words di (‘two’), pteron (‘wing’), and karpos (‘fruit’), referring to the two-winged fruits of this genus.