Cultivated fruits

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its seeds are rich in protein, fiber, B vitamins, and minerals, in greater amounts than in many other grains. Today, it is cultivated in many countries around the world.

To the Incas, this crop was sacred, called chisoya mama (‘mother of all grains’). Traditionally, the Inca emperor was the one to sow the first seeds of the growing season, using ‘golden implements’. (Source: H. Popenoe 1989. Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.)

When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Andes, they refused to acknowledge the qualities of quinoa, calling it ‘food for Indians’. They even forbade its cultivation at one point, and the Incas were forced to grow wheat instead. (Source: D.W. Gade 1999. Nature and culture in the Andes. University of Wisconsin Press)

It is an annual, growing to 2 m tall, stem branched, green, red, or purple, leaves more or less triangular in outline, lobed, green or yellowish, 5-10 cm long and 3-8 cm wide. Inflorescences are large, terminal or axillary panicles of small flowers, fruits white, yellow, red, purple, or black, depending on variety.

The generic name, derived from Ancient Greek khen (‘wild goose’) and podion, diminutive of poús (‘foot’), was given in allusion to the outline of the leaves of several species of the genus, in English called goosefoot.

The specific name is derived from the Quechua name of the plant, kinwa or kinuwa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

The true fruit is a nut, attached to the top of the cashew apple. The nut is delicious, eaten roasted as a snack, or cashew cheese or cashew butter is made from the oil in it. The pulp and juice of the cashew apple can be processed into a sweet, astringent drink, or it may be fermented and distilled into liquor. The shell is used in production of varnish, lubricant, and paint.

Cashew is native to South America, but is widely cultivated elsewhere, the largest producers being India and the Ivory Coast.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek ana (‘upwards’ or ‘without’) and cardium (‘heart’), alluding to the cashew nut growing on the cashew apple, resembling an upside-down, inverted heart. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘from the West’, referring to its origin in South America.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This large, evergreen tree may sometimes grow to 30 m tall, with a trunk diameter of up to 3.7 m. Leaves are leathery, lanceolate, oblong, or elliptic, to 35 cm long and 16 cm wide, bronze-coloured when young, later dark green and glossy. Inflorescences are large, branched, terminal clusters of small, yellowish-white flowers, a few of each cluster producing a green or yellowish, fleshy drupe, to 25 cm long, which may be egg-shaped, ovoid, kidney-shaped or rounded. The soft flesh is yellow or orange and has a large, flat pit in the centre.

More than 500 cultivated varieties are known, most of them found in India, which is the largest producer with about 25 million tons annually. Other major producers are China, Indonesia, Mexico, Pakistan, Thailand, Brazil, Bangladesh, and Nigeria.

The wood is of low quality, used as plywood, and for musical instruments and cheap furniture. A yellow dye can be obtained from the bark.

Mango is the national tree of Bangladesh, and the national fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines.

The generic name is a combination of manga, a South Indian name for the fruit, and the Latin fera (‘bearer’), whereas the specific name alludes to its origin in India.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its pinkish-red fruits are sold as pink peppercorns, used as a flavouring agent in drinks and syrups. However, there has been records of small children experiencing vomiting and diarrhoea after eating them. The leaves may also be poisonous. In traditional medicine, the species has been used for wounds and infections, as a diuretic, and for toothache, rheumatism and menstrual disorders.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek skhinos, the classical name of another member of the family, the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus). The specific name is a corruption of mulli, the Quechua name of the tree.

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, growing in a wide variety of habitats, from dry dunes to swamps. It is widely cultivated in South America for its flowers, which are the main source of food for a stingless bee, Tetragonisca angustula, which is an important honey producer. The dried fruits are sold as pink peppercorns, which add a pepper-like taste to food.

It has been introduced elsewhere as an ornamental plant, especially in the southern United States, where it often becomes naturalized and is regarded as a highly invasive plant in some states, including Florida.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with leaves like the turpentine tree’ (Pistacia terebinthus).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is globular or conical, usually pale green, sometimes bluish-green, to 10 cm across/long, with a thick rind of knobby segments, which separate when the fruit is ripe. The flesh is fragrant, sweet, whitish, cream-coloured, or pale yellow. It tastes a little like custard, hence one of the common names. The 20-40 seeds are black, hard, and shining, to 1.5 cm long. They are sometimes ground to be used as an insecticide.

It is native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, but is widely cultivated elsewhere in hot climates. It was first brought to Asia by Spanish traders on galleons, bound for Manila.

The generic name may be derived from the Latin annona (‘yearly produce’ or ‘harvest’). Another possibility is that it was inspired by the name for the tree by the Taino, a Caribbean indigenous people.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘scaly’, referring to the segmented, scaly exterior of the immature fruit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is widely used in European and Asian cuisines as a vegetable, in soups, sauces, and cakes, and as topping on cold dishes and sour cream products. The seeds are used as a spice, especially in pickles and vinegar. In Jutland, Denmark, dill, thyme, and bog myrtle were once added to a local liqueur. It is also utilized as perfume in soap production, and has been used as an insect repellent.

In the Middle Ages, dill was used by magicians in their spells, and in charms against witchcraft. In Nimphidia, the Court of Faery, from 1627, English poet Michael Drayton (1563-1631) writes:

 

 

In his book The Popular Names of British Plants, Richard Chandler Prior (1809-1902) states that the name dill is derived from an old Norse word, dilla (‘to lull’), in allusion to the carminative properties of the plant. The strange folk name meeting house seed refers to the former custom of chewing dill seeds during long church services to calm rumbling stomachs.

The medical properties of dill were already known in Ancient Greece and Rome, and it is also mentioned in the Bible.

In his Complete Herbal, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616-1654) writes: ”Mercury has the dominion of this plant, and therefore to be sure it strengthens the brain. (…) It stays* the hiccough, being boiled in wine, and but smelled unto, being tied in a cloth. The seed is of more use than the leaves, and more effectual to digest raw and vicious humours, and is used in medicines that serve to expel wind, and the pains proceeding therefrom.”

 

 

Life and career of Culpeper, Smid, and Paulli are described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

In today’s herbal medicine, dill is considered antibacterial, an antioxidant, and a powerful remedy for menstrual flow. The fruits, as well as an oil derived from them, possess stimulant, aromatic, carminative, and stomachic properties. It is utilized for lowering cholesterol levels, and for colic, excessive gas, bad breath, heartburn, menstrual cramps, depression, and epilepsy. In Chinese traditional medicine, it is said to benefit the spleen, kidney, and stomach.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of dill. The specific name is also Latin, derived from gravis (‘heavy’) and olens (‘fragrant’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Stem to 50 cm tall, leaves pinnately divided, variable, near the base with broad, toothed lobes, higher up with slender and feathery lobes, flowers white or very pale pink, asymmetric, outward-pointing petals to 6 mm long, inward-pointing to 3 mm. The fruit is globular, to 5 mm across.

All parts of the plant are edible, and the species is utilized as food over most of the world. The strongly aromatic fresh leaves are eaten as a vegetable, and the dried seeds are a very common spice, either whole or ground, especially in Indian cuisine, where it is called dhanya. It is one of the main ingredients in the popular spice mixture garam masala. The root is used in Thai cuisine.

Since 1610, Carmelite friars have been making so-called Carmelite drops, a liquor, in which coriander is one of the ingredients.

In California, aphids are a serious pest in organic lettuce fields. Experiments have shown that coriander was among the species that, when planted with lettuce and allowed to flower, would attract hoverflies, the larvae of which eat up to 150 aphids per day. (Source: E. Brennan. Efficient Intercropping for Biological Control of Aphids in Transplanted Organic Lettuce, in: articles.extension.org).

Coriander has been utilized medicinally for at least 3000 years. Since the Middle Ages, it was used as a digestive and for stomach trouble, including flatulence. Other ailments traditionally treated with coriander include skin inflammation, diarrhoea, high cholesterol levels, mouth ulcers, anemia, and diabetes. Alcohol, containing coriander, is rubbed on rheumatic joints and muscles.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek koriannon (‘stink bug’), undoubtedly referring to the very powerful fragrance of coriander. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sown’ or ‘planted’.

The Spanish name cilantro is a corruption of the generic name, whereas the name Chinese parsley stems from the very popular usage of this herb in Chinese cuisine.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is medium-sized, to 20 m tall, with a slender trunk, to 15 cm across, leaves pinnately divided, to 2 m long, with numerous leaflets.

Its nut, called betel nut, is an ingredient in betel, a mild intoxicant, consisting of a leaf from the betel bush (Piper betle), which is wrapped around bits of areca nut and, according to your taste, tobacco or spices, taken with a small amount of lime. Chewing this mixture increases your spit production, and your saliva turns brick-red. Blotches of betel spit are ubiquitous in many Asian countries – on streets, house walls, stairs, and elsewhere.

The generic name is derived from a local South Indian name of this palm, either from Tamil areec, or from Malayalam atekka. The specific name is derived from a Malayan name of the species, caccu.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a medium-sized tree, growing to 20 m tall, leaves very large, to 12 m long and 1.5 m wide, pinnately divided, with leaflets in up to 6 rows, each leaflet to 70 cm long and 5 cm broad. If they are not removed by people, the leaf bases remain on the trunk for a long time.

A sugar-rich sap is obtained from the young inflorescence by first tying it together to prevent it opening, then beating it daily for several days with a wooden mallet. After a few days, a slice is cut daily from the end of the inflorescence and, almost a week later, the sap begins to flow. Up to 20 litres of sap can be obtained dayly from larger trees. This can continue for several months, if a fresh slice is cut every day. The juice can be drunk, or concentrated by evaporation to form a sweet syrup or a solid sugar, called jaggery. It is often fermented to make palm wine, called toddy, or a strong alcoholic drink, named arrack. Palm wine is consumed in huge quantities in India and Sri Lanka.

The fruit is rounded, smooth, to 7 cm across, initially green, turning yellow at maturity, and finally black. It is edible and sweet.

The generic name is derived from aren, a Moluccan or Javanese name for this palm, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘feathered’, referring to the leaves resembling huge feathers.

 

 

 

 

 

It is a large tree, to 30 m tall, trunk to 1 m across at the base, higher up to 50 cm. It has up to 60 large, stiff, fan-shaped leaves, to 4 m long including the stalk, blade to 1.5 m across, leaflets to 40 cm long and 9 cm wide. The fruit is a rounded drupe, to 20 cm in diameter, produced in large clusters.

The ripe fruit has a yellow or orange, edible pulp with a distinctive aroma. It is eaten raw or cooked, and unripe fruits are pickled. The soft upper 10 metres of the trunk contains some starch, which may be harvested in times of food scarcity. Like the sugar palm, sap is tapped from the young inflorescence and fermented to make palm wine or alcohol.

The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek borassos, the term used for an immature palm inflorescence. The specific name is derived from the Latin flabellum (‘fan’) and fer (‘I carry’), alluding to the fan-shaped leaves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a large tree, to 30 m tall, leaves pinnately divided, to 6 m long, with leaflets to 90 cm long. Old leaves are shed, leaving the trunk smooth. The large fruits can be up to 45 cm long and 20 cm across, weighing up to 3 kilos.

This species is utilized for countless purposes. Oil from the nuts, and also dried copra, is used for cooking and in lamps. Mats, weaved from the leaves, are used as walls and roofs in houses, and mats and rope are produced from the fibres in the husk. Charcoal is made from the shells, and the trunk is utilized as timber and firewood.

Juice from newly opened coconuts makes a refreshing drink. The king coconut is a variety, which contains more and sweeter juice than regular coconuts, and is a very popular drink. This type is widely cultivated in Sri Lanka, where it is known as thambili.

Like with the two previous species, sap is tapped from the young inflorescence and fermented to make palm wine or alcohol.

A coconut scraper is a very important tool in South Indian and Sri Lankan kitchens. It consists of a small wooden board with a bent iron piece attached to one end. The free end of the iron is flat, with very sharp spikes. On this iron, the copra from coconuts, split in half, is scraped into small bits, which are then pressed to extract the oil. Copra and oil are cooked with curries. The scraped copra can also be eaten raw, mixed with raw onion, lemon juice, salt, and chili powder. This mixture is called sambol.

The generic name stems from Portuguese explorers in the 1500s, who named the fruit coco (‘head’ or ‘skull’) because of its 3 germinating pores, which resemble two slanting eyes and an open mouth. The specific name is derived from the Latin nux (‘nut’) and fer (‘to carry’). Thus the name loosely translates as ‘nut-bearing face’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It may grow to 30 m tall, singly or forming a clump with several trunks from a single root system. The crown may be up to 10 m wide, with leaves to 6 m long, pinnately divided, with about 150 leaflets, each to 30 cm long and 2 cm broad. The leaf-stalk is spiny. The plant is dioecious, having separate male and female plants. The fruits are ovoid or cylindric, to 7 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter, red, yellow, orange, dark brown, or black, depending on variety.

The fruits, called dates, are edible and sweet. Tender young leaves can be used as a vegetable, and sap is tapped from young shoots at the top of the trunk, which is often fermented to alcohol. When the tree dies, the trunk yields excellent timber. The seeds are soaked and ground, to be used as animal feed, and their oil is used in cosmetics.

The generic name is derived from phoinikos, the classical Greek word for this palm, used by Greek scholar and botanist Theophrastos (c. 371-287 B.C.), and also by Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.). It may refer to the Phoenicians, or to Phoenix, son of Amyntor and Cleobule in Homer’s Iliad, or to the phoenix, the sacred bird of Ancient Egypt. (Source: U. Quattrocchi 2000. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names)

Pliny’s life is described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

The specific name is derived from the Latin dactylus (‘finger’) and fer (‘I carry’), alluding to the oblong fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Its trunk is very short, and the leaves grow directly from the base of it. They are pinnately divided, up to 6 m long, 2 m of which is an extremely thorny stalk, with spines to 15 cm long. The flowers are small, creamy-white in colour, inflorescences growing from the base of the palm. The fruit is an ovoid or pear-shaped drupe, to 8 cm long and 5 cm across, with thin, brown or reddish-brown, scaly skin, which gave rise to the folk name snake fruit. Inside are 3 white or pale yellow lobes, which are edible and crunchy. Each lobe contains a hard seed, which is not edible.

The scientific and common names stem from the Malay term for this plant.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A deciduous shrub, to 4 m tall, with spines on the pale brown or reddish branches, leaves ovate, to 5 cm long and 2 cm wide, margin toothed, flowers yellow, to 6 mm across, borne in pendent panicles. The fruit is an oblong, red berry, to 1 cm long and 5 mm broad.

In former days, it was cultivated for its berries, which contain 4-6 % of citric acid and lots of vitamin C. Their taste resembles that of lemons, and they were used as a substitute for this luxury item.

The generic name was probably the classical Latin name of these plants, and the common name is a derivation of this name. Some suggest that the genus was named after the Berber people in North Africa. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

It is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Also known as brown mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, Oriental mustard, or vegetable mustard, this plant is widely cultivated, especially in Asia, where it constitutes a very important vegetable, divided into the main groups leaf mustard, curled-leaf mustard, cut-leaf mustard, large-petiole mustard, head mustard, oil-seed mustard, root mustard, multishoot mustard, and big-stem mustard.

In the Indian Subcontinent, mustard oil is primarily obtained from this hybrid, but also from the white mustard (Sinapis alba, see below).

The first part of the Latin name is a combination of the genus names Brassica and Mutarda. The second part is Latin, meaning ‘rush-like’. What it refers to is not clear.

A number of pictures, depicting this hybrid, are shown on the page In praise of the colour yellow.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A mild mustard is produced from the seed oil, whereas more pungent mustard types come from the seeds of black mustard (Mutarda nigra, previously called Brassica nigra). Young leaves can be used as salad.

In his book Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallets, English gardener and vegetarian John Evelyn (1620-1706) writes: ”When in the leaf, mustard, especially in young seedling plants, is of incomparable effect to quicken and revive the spirits, strengthening the memory, expelling heaviness, (…) besides being an approved antiscorbutic.”

Today, white mustard is regarded as an emetic and a diuretic. It is also used for treatment of arthritis, rheumatism, and sciatica, for hypothyroidism, and for Raynaud’s disease (‘white fingers’). A paste of the seeds is applied to the skin to increase blood circulation.

The generic name is a Latinized version of sinapi, the classical Greek word for white mustard. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘white’, alluding to the pale seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Botanically, the pineapple is an herb, which may grow to 1.5 m tall, sometimes taller. It has a short, stocky stem with tough, waxy, spiny leaves, growing to 1 m long. It has a multiple fruit, consisting of 200 or more individual, bluish, densely packed flowers, which turn into berry-like fruitlets that have merged together and form the edible part, the ‘pineapple’. In the wild state, it is pollinated primarily by hummingbirds, sometimes at night by bats.

The English name stems from 1568, from the book Les singularitez de la France antarctique (1557), written by French priest, explorer, and writer André Thevet (1516-1590), relating his experiences in France Antarctique, a French settlement near present-day Rio de Janeiro. In English, this book is titled The New Found World, or Antarctike. Thevet refers to a fruit, cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people, living in this area. He describes the fruit as nanas, a Tupi word meaning ‘excellent fruit’, and says that it was made in the manner of a ‘pine apple’ (pine cone).

The Tupi word was adopted by Scottish botanist Philip Miller (1691-1771) as the plant’s generic name in the form Ananas, whereas the specific name is Latin, derived from coma, which literally means ‘hair’, but is also used botanically as a term for leaves, thus ‘with many leaves’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The leaves of these plants are reduced to spines, and photosynthesis takes place in the green stem segments. The spines protect the plant from being eaten, provide some shade, and bend the dry desert wind, preventing it from reaching the stem, thus reducing evaporation.

On the stem are small bumps, called areoles, which are also highly modified leaves. The flowers emerge from these areoles, each areole only producing one flower in its lifetime. As the plant grows, new areoles are formed.

Glochids are short spines, often hair-like, which grow in clusters from the areoles. When touched, these glochids easily detach and get lodged in the skin, causing immense irritation. The name is derived from Ancient Greek glochinos, which may refer to any projecting point, especially of an arrow.

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek hyle (‘wood’), presumably referring to the stem, and the Latin cereus, derived from Ancient Greek keros (‘wax candle’). Originally, Cereus was the name of a large number of cacti, referring to the slender and columnar shape of many of these plants.

Several species have large, sweet-tasting and delicious fruits, called dragonfruits or pitahaya – not to be confused with the word pitaya, which covers edible fruits of Mexican cacti in general. Other English names of this genus include strawberry pear, belle-of-the-night, Cinderella plant, and Jesus-in-the-cradle. The latter name refers to the large, white flower, whose inner white petals are nestled within larger, greenish-yellow, outer bracts, by some people thought to resemble an infant Jesus in a cradle. In Chinese, the fruits are called 火龙果 (‘red dragon fruit’).

Mainly 3 Hylocereus species are cultivated. White-fleshed pitahaya (H. undatus) has red-skinned fruits with white flesh, red-fleshed pitahaya (H. costaricensis, also known as H. polyrhizus) has red-skinned fruits with red flesh, and yellow pitahaya (H. megalanthus) has yellow-skinned fruits with white flesh.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants are characterized by their broad, flat stem segments, called cladodes, in which water is stored, making the plant able to withstand long periods of drought.

The fruits of many species are edible and sweet-tasting, but they must be peeled carefully to remove the glochids. Some indigenous peoples, including the Tequesta, would roll the fruit in sand to get rid of the glochids. They are also easily removed by using fire. The most common culinary species is Indian prickly pear (O. ficus-indica), which is widely cultivated around the world.

Dactylopius coccus is a scale insect of the family Dactylopiidae, which is native to tropical and subtropical Latin America. This insect is partial to prickly pears, feeding on the sap. It produces a carminic acid, which is extracted from its body and eggs to make a red dye, called cochineal dye, primarily used as food colouring and for cosmetics.

Cochineal was utilized by the Aztec and Maya peoples as far back as c. 700 B.C. for dyeing clothes and as paint. Later, the dye was almost exclusively produced in Oaxaca, Mexico, and it became the country’s second-most valued export after silver. When artificial food dyes emerged, cochineal production declined, but recent increased demand for healthy foods has renewed its popularity. Today, the main producers of the dye are Peru, Chile, and the Canary Islands.

The Mexican coat of arms depicts a golden eagle with a rattlesnake in its beak, perched on a prickly pear cactus. According to the official history of Mexico, this coat of arms is inspired by an Aztec legend regarding the founding of their capital, Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs, who were nomads in those days, were searching for a place to build this capital. Huitzilopochtli, deity of the sun, and of war and human sacrifice, commanded them to find an eagle devouring a snake, perched atop a cactus, which grew on a rock in a lake. After 200 years of wandering, they spotted the promised sign on a small island in a swampy lake, Texcoco. Here, they founded their new capital, which they named Tenochtitlan after a local species of prickly pear, in Nahuatl tenochtli. (Source: J.B. Minahan 2009. The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems)

The generic name refers to the Ancient Greek city of Opus, where, according to scholar and botanist Theophrastos (c. 371-287 B.C.), an edible plant grew, which could be propagated by rooting its leaves – just like prickly pears can be propagated by rooting their stem segments. (Source: U. Quattrocchi 2000. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hop is native to Europe and western Asia, but is cultivated many other places and has become naturalized in North America and elsewhere.

This herbaceous climber can grow to 10 m long, leaves opposite or alternate, palmate, to 15 cm long and 13 cm wide, with 3-7 large, toothed lobes. The fragrant flowers are wind-pollinated, with male and female flowers on separate plants.

As early as the 9th Century, in Europe, hop was added to beer to make it keep better; only later was it used as flavouring and to make the beer stronger. For another 800 years, however, the English opposed hop as an additive to beer, calling it “a wicked weed that would spoil the taste of the drink and endanger the people.” Elsewhere in Europe, it was praised for its taste and effect.

The generic name possibly stems from old Germanic humela (‘fruit-bearing’), which may allude to the luxurious production of flowers and fruits.

The specific name is a diminutive of the Latin lupus (wolf), referring to the strong growth of hop, which ’attacks’ and overgrows other plants. In June, when the growth is at its peak, the stem may grow up to 17 cm a day. On the island of Funen, Denmark, an old saying was that you were able to see this fast growth.

The English name is derived from Anglo-Saxon hoppan (’to climb’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The native area of this plant is thought to be southern Mexico or Central America, but as it has been cultivated in this area for thousands of years, it is a matter of speculation. Today, it is cultivated in numerous countries with a tropical or subtropical climate.

The flowers are edible and fragrant after boiling, which reduces their bitter taste. They are often stir-fried or used in salads. They are rich in antioxidants, flavonoids, and vitamin C, and in traditional medicine they are believed to support digestion, and they are also believed to be anti-inflammatory.

The generic name is the feminine form of the adjective Caricus, a shortening of Caria and ficus (‘fig’), thus ‘the fig from Caria’, in Ancient Greek Karia, a Greek province in present-day south-western Turkey. This name was applied by Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1753, perhaps referring to the sweet taste of the fruit.

The specific name is the name of the plant in an Arawak language, which was adopted by the Spaniards.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an evergreen tree, sometimes reaching a height of 25 m, with dark brown or blackish, flaky bark. The wood contains a yellow, bitter latex. The leaves are opposite, leathery, thick, oblong, ovate, or elliptic, to 25 cm long and 10 cm wide, dark green and glossy above, yellowish-green below, with a distinct pale midrib. New leaves are often reddish-pink.

The flowers are fleshy, to 5 cm across, petals red, pink, yellowish-red, or greenish-red. The fruit is a smooth, reddish-purple berry, to 7.5 cm in diameter, with a thick rind, inside of which are 4-8 segments of white, juicy, aromatic flesh, whose taste is both sweet and tangy.

In folk medicine, the fruit is used for skin infections, wound, ulcers, dysentery, diarrhea, abdominal pain, inflammation, and fever. It has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties.

The generic name honours Dutch surgeon and botanist Laurent Garcin (c. 1681-1751), who worked as a ship’s surgeon for the Dutch East India Company in the 1720s. Around 1740, he presented some or all of his plant collections from his Asian travels to Dutch botanist and physician Johannes Burman (1707-1780) in Amsterdam, whose son, Nicolaas Laurens Burman (1734-1793), who was also a botanist, used 98 of Garcin’s specimens for his work Flora Indica (1768).

The specific name is derived from the Malayan term for the plant, manggis.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The large fruit is a modified berry, globular og oblong, with a thick rind and a fleshy centre, in wild plants up to 20 cm in diameter, whereas they in cultivated varieties may exceed 60 cm in length and 25 cm in width. The rind is various shades of green, usually mottled or striped. The sweet, juicy flesh may be red, pink, orange, or yellow, rarely green or white.

The seeds are white when young, later turning black. They are highly nutritious, containing protein, magnesium, iron, and healthy fats. They are roasted as a crunchy snack, ground into flour for baking, and added to drinks, salads, and yogurt. A healthy herbal tea is also made from them.

It is believed that the plant originated in north-eastern Africa, but today it is cultivated in numerous countries around the world. More than 1,000 varieties are known.

The watermelon was first given the name Cucurbita citrullus (‘small, lemon-like pumpkin’) by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1753, but was transferred to the genus Citrullus in 1836 by German botanist Heinrich Adolf Schrader (1767-1836), who named it Citrullus vulgaris. One of its synonyms is Momordica lanata, which, however, was used in 1794 by Swedish botanist Carl Peter Thunberg (1743-1828) for a small, bitter melon species in southern Africa. Why the lanata part, which means ‘woolly-hairy’, was transferred to the watermelon is not clear.

Linnaeus and Thunberg are presented on the page People: Famous naturalists.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an herbaceous climber, to 5 m long, covered in stiff, bristly hairs, leaves alternate, triangular-ovate or heart-shaped, to 15 cm long and 12 cm wide, with 3-7 lobes, margin toothed, flowers yellow, funnel-shaped, to 4 cm across, growing from the leaf axils. The fruit is cylindrical, usually tapered at both ends, to 60 cm long, some types furrowed length-wise.

The generic name is the classical Latin term for the cucumber, and the specific name, also Latin, means ‘cultivated’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

At least 9 varieties exist, and due to their varied genetic background, plants vary greatly in appearance. They may grow to 5 m long, most types trailing along the ground, although some types are non-climbing and bushy. The leaves are alternate, palmately divided, rough and bristly-hairy, to 25 cm long and 30 cm broad, with 3-5 mostly shallow lobes. The large, yellow flowers, to 10 cm across, are solitary in the leaf axils, male flowers long-stalked, female flowers short-stalked.

The fruit is extremely variable in size, shape and colour, skin ranging from soft to hard. The smallest ornamental types measure only about 10 cm across, others are huge, with a length of about 90 cm. The colour may be green, yellow, or orange, and some types are striped (see variation in picture below). The smallest types weigh only around 100 g, the largest up to 18 kg.

Pumpkin and squash, which contain protein, fibers, and various fats, are cooked in dishes, and fresh squash is cut into strips to be dried for winter use. The flowers may be fried as a delicacy. The seeds may be eaten raw or roasted as a snack, and they are used in salads, soups, oatmeal, yogurt, smoothies, pesto, hummus, muffins, and bread.

The Zuni people made cups, ladles, dippers, and storage containers from the gourds, and a poultice made from the seeds and flowers was used to treat cactus scratches.

The generic name is the classical Latin term for a gourd, whereas the specific name is derived from Ancient Greek pepon (‘large melon’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An annual, climbing herb with slender, 5-angled, hairy stem, to 10 m long, leaves long-stalked, palmate with heart-shaped base, to 25 cm long and wide, with 5-7 triangular lobes, margin with small teeth, flowers yellow, to 5 cm across, unisexual, male flowers in racemes, females solitary.

Immature fruits are green, cylindric, club-shaped, or barrel-shaped, with 10 distinct, sharp ridges. The young fruit is edible, cooked as a vegetable or pickled. When older, the interior dries to become brown and fibrous. It is used for scrubbing dishes, for bathing, and for making hats.

In traditional medicine, it is used for various ailments, including skin problems and jaundice. The seeds are emetic and purgative, and they are eaten to expel intestinal worms. Fruit and seeds are also used in treatment of venereal diseases, especially gonorrhea.

The generic name is derived from louff, the Arabic name of Luffa cylindrica.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘with sharp angles’, referring to the prominent ridges of the fruit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a climber, which may grow to 5 m long, leaves alternate, to 12 cm long and across, deeply divided into 3-7 rounded, coarsely toothed lobes. The small flowers are solitary, yellow, to 3.5 cm across, males and females in separate flowers on the same plant.

The oblong fruit is pendent, green when young, orange when ripe, typically to 15 cm long and 4 cm in diameter, although some cultivated varieties can be up to 45 cm long. Its surface is warty, with a rather thin, hard layer of flesh surrounding a cavity with numerous flat seeds, each covered in a thin layer of flesh. The skin of young fruits is edible, with a bitter taste, and the seeds are also edible.

When ripe, the fruit turns orange, splitting into segments which open to expose the seeds, which are now covered in bright red pulp.

In traditional medicine, the plant is used to treat skin problems, rheumatism, and arthritis.

The generic name is derived from the Latin mordicus (‘biting’), alluding to the seed surface and margin, which look as if they have been bitten. The specific name is unexplained.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a climber, up to 10 m long, with a hairy stem, leaves heart-shaped or 3-lobed, to 20 cm long and 15 cm wide, hairy on both surfaces. Male and female flowers are on separate plants, to 4 cm long, males in clusters on very long stalks, females solitary, short-stalked, in the leaf axils. Both have white petals with long, branched, thread-like fringes along the margin.

The fruit differs from that of most other members of the genus, being globular, ovoid, or oblong, to 7 cm long and 4 cm wide, green when young, later turning yellow, and finally bright red or orange when ripe. The angular seeds, to about 1 cm long, are dark brown or black, usually covered in a slimy, dark mucus.

The root provides edible starch, and young fruits are eaten in curries or preserved in salt or miso.

The plant is commonly utilized in traditional medicine to treat cough, fever, and jaundice, and a decoction or poultice is used for sore throat and boils. It also acts as a laxative and may provoke abortions. The seeds are used as a vermifuge.

The dried fruit is rich in saponins and can be used as a substitute for soap.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek trix (‘hair’) and anthos (‘flower’), alluding to the fringed, hairy petals of most members of the genus. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘hairy’, referring to the the hairy leaves and stems.

In English, it is sometimes called Japanese snake gourd, which is a misnomer, as the name snake gourd usually applies to T. cucumerina, whose fruit is long and twisted, resembling a snake, whereas the fruit of T. pilosa, as explained above, is globular, ovoid, or oblong.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a perennial herb, stems cylindric, spongy, to 7 mm across, forming tufts to 90 cm long. At the tip of the underground stems are globular tubers, which in wild plants are up to 7 mm wide, whereas those of cultivated forms can measure up to 5 cm. The inflorescence is a narrow, cylindric spikelet, to 5 cm long and 4 mm wide, with numerous tiny, whitish flowers. The fruit is a glossy, ovoid, yellowish or brown nutlet, to 2.2 mm long and 1.8 mm wide.

The tubers are edible and sweet-tasting, rich in starch, but they must be roasted first, as they tend to be poisonous when raw.

The generic name, previously written as Heleocharis, is derived from Ancient Greek heleios (‘growing in marshes’) and charis (‘grace’), whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sweet’, referring to the tuber.

The tubers are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat measles and eye diseases. In Sumatra, mats are made from the stems.

Even though it is not the fruits of this plant that are utilized, I include it here anyway due to the resemblance of the tubers to fruits.

 

 

 

 

 

 

A small, deciduous tree, to 10 m tall, leaves stiff, glossy green above, paler below, ovate, elliptic, or broadly lanceolate, to 20 cm long and 15 cm broad, flowers small, to 2.5 cm across, with 4 petals and 4 calyx lobes, female flowers creamy white, usually solitary, slightly fragrant, male flowers often with a pinkish tint, in groups of 3, fruit rounded, smooth, orange, to 15 cm across, larger types weighing up to 500 g.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek dios (Zeus) and pyros (‘wheat’), thus ‘Zeus’s wheat’, in a broader context translated as ‘divine food’. It alludes to the fruit of the Caucasian persimmon (D. lotus).

The specific name is the Japanese name of this species.

The word persimmon stems from pichamins (‘dried fruit’), the Powhatan word for an American species of the genus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a shrub or a small tree, occasionally growing to 12 m tall, leaves reddish when young, later glossy green, long-stalked, alternate, palmate, to 45 cm across, with 5-12 deep lobes, margin coarsely toothed. Some varieties have reddish-purple or bronze-coloured leaves throughout their life.

The flowers, which lack petals, are arranged in a terminal, panicle-like inflorescence, the white or yellow male flowers below, female flowers above, with bright red stigmas. The flowers produce an abundance of pollen, and the plant is regarded as extremely allergenic. The fruit is a ball-shaped or ovoid, spiny capsule, green or reddish-purple, containing large, ovoid, shiny, highly poisonous seeds with brownish spots.

The name castor oil plant was given in allusion to the former usage of the seed oil as a powerful laxative. Other uses include treatment of inflammation, arthritis, constipation, and liver problems. The oil and juice are used for skin problems, and may also be efficient in treatment of tumors. However, the plant must be used with care, as it contains the deadly toxin ricin.

The generic name is Latin for ‘tick’, referring to the seed, which resembles certain species of ticks. The specific name means ‘common’.

A popular name of the plant is Palm of Christ, referring to the similarity between Christ and this plant: As the belief in Christ can help psychological problems, Ricinus oil is able to cure a variety of physical ailments.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a deciduous tree, which may grow to 20 m tall, leaves long-stalked, ovate with a heart-shaped base, to 25 cm long and 18 cm wide, tip pointed, margin sometimes with 3 lobes. Inflorescences are terminal panicles with numerous fragrant flowers, to 3.5 cm across, petals white, ovate or spatulate. The filaments of the 8-14 stamens are yellow or red. The fruit is a globular drupe, to 7.6 cm across, with wrinkled skin that turns from green to yellow and finally brown. Each fruit contains 3 seeds, rich in oil.

The mu oil tree is very common in Taiwan, and a number of pictures, depicting its spectacular flowering on this island, are shown on the page Plants: When the mu oil tree is flowering.

This species is valued for its oil, called tung oil, abrasin oil, or Chinese wood oil. Traditionally, this oil is utilized to manufacture varnish, paints, Chinese black ink, and lamp oil, for waterproofing cloth and paper, and for caulking and painting ships. It was also formerly used for insulating electric wires. (Source: Protabase – Plant Resources of Tropical Africa – prota.org)

Today, the main usage of the oil is in the production of paint and ink, whereas low-quality oil is processed into soap or linoleum. Growing environmental awareness has led to an increased usage of the oil from both species as a lining in food, beverage, and medicine containers. After extraction of the oil, the press cake is a good fertilizer.

The generic name is derived from the Latin vernix (‘varnish’), referring to the usage of the seed oil. The specific name is not very appropriate, as this species also grows in lowlands.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a woody climber, to about 10 m long, leaves pinnately divided, to 15 cm long, with 5-17 pairs of oblong or elliptic leaflets, each to 2.5 cm long and 1 cm wide. The flowers are arranged in dense clusters in the leaf axils, each flower to 1.5 cm long, petals white, pink, violet, or purple. The fruit is an oblong pod, to 5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, flat, with a distinct sharp beak at the end. It is covered in short, rust-coloured hairs. Each pod contains 3-8 ovoid, hard, glossy seeds, to 7 mm long, bright red with a black base.

Common names of this plant include crab’s eye and cock’s eyes, which refer to the black markings on the seeds. The name jumbie bead stems from Trinidad, where bracelets, made from the seeds, are worn around the wrist or ankle to ward off jumbies (evil spirits) and mal-yeux (‘evil eyes’).

The seeds are used as beads in rosaries and necklaces, hence the common names rosary pea, prayer bead, and paternoster pea. In the old days, they were also used by jewellers as weights, as their weight is always consistent.

Usage of the plant is described in depth on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek habros (‘graceful’ or ‘delicate’), alluding to the leaflets. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘used in prayer’, referring to the usage of the seeds in rosaries.

 

 

 

 

 

The plant originates in South America, being native from northern Brazil southwards to northern Argentina, but is cultivated in warmer areas around the globe for its tasty seeds, the peanuts, which are mainly eaten roasted. They are also ground to produce peanut butter, a popular eating in North America and other places, as well as being an ingredient in candies, cakes, and cookies. They are used in sauces in Latin America and Southeast Asia, and added to salads and stews in India.

Oil extracted from the seeds can be used for cooking, and also as an ingredient in paint, varnish, and furniture polish. The cake is used as animal fodder and as a fertilizer.

The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek arakos, which was the term for a type of climbing plant. The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek hypo (‘under’) and gaia (‘earth’), naturally alluding to the pod developing underground.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A smooth climber, sometimes to 2 m long, leaves with 1-4 pairs of leaflets, entire or toothed, with a terminal tendril. Stipules are very large, obliquely ovate, to 8 cm long, toothed, stem-clasping. Flower stalks grow from the leaf axils, to 10 cm long, with 1-3 flowers, to 3 cm long, corolla variable in colour, standard usually pale lilac with darker streaks, wings and keel dark purple, or all parts white. Calyx to 1.5 cm long, teeth longer than tube, ovate or lanceolate. The pod is linear, spherical, to 7 cm long and 1.7 cm wide.

The generic name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek lathyros, the classical name of the chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus). The alternative generic name Pisum is the classical Latin word for the garden pea.

The specific name is derived from the Latin holus (‘vegetable’) and the suffix aceus (‘resembling’), a term used for many types of edible plants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an annual, more or less erect, many-branched herb, which may grow to 75 cm tall, leaves pinnately divided, to 5 cm long, with 5-16 opposite, oblong or elliptic leaflets, each to 2 cm long and 8 mm wide. The tiny flowers are borne in clusters, to 5 cm long, petals white, purple, or pale blue. They are self-pollinating, developing into smooth pods, to 2.5 cm long, containing a single or 2 lens-shaped seeds, which come in many colours, depending on variety. They may be green, grey, red, orange, yellow, brown, or black, varying in size from 2 to 9 mm.

They are highly nutritious, being rich in protein, fibers, minerals, and antioxidants. They are used in a variety of dishes, from soups and stews to salads and curries. They are an extremely important food item in the Indian Subcontinent, called daal.

The fibers, potassium, and folate in lentils lower harmful cholesterol, manage blood pressure, and reduce the risk of heart disease. They cause a slower and more stable rise in blood sugar levels, which helps to manage diabetes.

The generic name is the classical Latin term for lentils, whereas the specific name, also Latin, means ‘of the kitchen’, i.e. ‘culinary’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a large, evergreen tree, growing to 30 m tall, with a trunk up to 2.5 m across, leaves alternate, pinnately divided, leaflets oblong, to 3.2 cm long and 1 cm wide. Inflorescences are small racemes, flowers to 2.5 cm across, sepals pink, but fall before the flower opens, petals yellow with orange, red, or purple streaks. The fruit is a velvety, curved pod, to 18 cm long and 4 cm broad, with a hard, brown shell. It contains a fleshy, acidic pulp, reddish-brown at maturity, and up to 12 flat, glossy, brown seeds.

The fruit pulp is an ingredient in many dishes, chutneys, curries, and sauces, adding a tangy, sour flavor. It is also used in drinks, syrups, jams, and candy. In many Latin-speaking countries, a beverage called tamarindo is made from the pulp. Young leaves and flowers are also edible, used in salads or soups.

The wood is hard and durable, used for furniture, wheels, and tools. It provides high-quality fuel and charcoal. Leaves and bark are used as a mordant (fixing agent) in dyeing fabrics. The seeds yield an oil, used for varnish, and they are good fodder for animals. The juice is used to polish metal.

Medicinally, the plant is used as a laxative, and to treat constipation, stomach disorders, and diarrhoea. It is also anti-inflammatory and an antioxidant. Bark and leaves are used for healing wounds and to reduce infections.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows to 35 m tall, with a trunk diameter of 2 m or occasionally more. The leaves are short-stalked, oblong or elliptic, to 27 cm long and 7 cm broad, base rounded, tip pointed, serrated along the margin with up to 25 teeth on each side, smooth above, downy below. The cupule is spherical, to 6 cm across, pale yellowish-brown, covered with long spines.

This tree may live for 500 or 600 years, and some cultivated specimens are reputedly 1,000 years old. It is widely cultivated for its edible nuts and for its wood. Raw chestnuts are covered by a tough skin, which has an unpleasant, astringent taste. They are usually roasted, which makes it easier to remove the skin. Chestnut orchards are commonly found in Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Italy, Greece, and elsewhere.

During my stay in the Zagros Mountains in south-western Iran (see Travel episodes – Iran 1973: In the mountains of Luristan), I was told that fruits of sweet chestnut, which is common in these mountains, were an important food item, when the wheat crop failed.

In his book Flora Danica, from 1648, Danish physician and herbalist Simon Paulli (1603-1680) says: ”Galenus* praises the fruits of sweet chestnut above all other kinds of acorns, which are good to eat. We must point out that we do not agree with Johan Bodæo à Stapel**, who, with beautiful and learned comments, has illustrated Theophrastum Eresium;*** because he claims that sweet chestnuts are a kind of nuts. However, to us it seems more appropriate to regard them as a kind of acorns, but we do not want to go into detail here. (…)

Those, who hold their health in high esteem, should take care that they do not eat too many sweet chestnuts, because the above-mentioned Galenus also says this about them: “(…) Sweet chestnuts, cooked or fried or dried over a fire, are always evil, but above all when they are eaten raw.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inflorescences are greenish, male catkins pendent, to 12 cm long, female spikes short, 1-3-flowered. Flowering occurs between February and May. The drupe is ovoid, to 6 cm long, husk green, glandular, nut-shell thick, strongly wrinkled, with 2 valves. It ripens from May to October.

In the wild, this tree is distributed from south-eastern Europe eastwards across the Middle East to the Himalaya and China. Habitats include forests, shrubberies, and open slopes.

Elsewhere, it is widely cultivated for the edible nuts. Oil is also extracted from the nuts, used for cooking or illumination. The wood is utilized for construction, furniture, and utensils. In the Himalaya, the foliage is stored as winter fodder. In Nepal, juice of the bark is taken against intestinal worms, and the oil cake is applied to the forehead to treat headache. Juice of the leaves are astringent and tonic. The nuts are eaten to treat asthma. Bark and unripe fruits are used for tanning and dyeing, and they are grounded to be strewn in rivers to stupefy fish.

The Romans extracted juice from the husk to be used as a hair dye. Followers of the Doctrine of Signatures, who claimed that the Great God had made all plants, so that humans would recognize the usage of them, said that the head-like form of the husk and the brain-like pattern of the nut meant that consuming it would “comfort the the brain and head mightily.”

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the walnut tree, derived from Iovis (the god Jupiter) and glans (‘acorn’), thus ‘Jupiter’s acorn’, i.e. food fit for the gods.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘royal’, naturally alluding to the splendour of this tree.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is usually long-lived, with some specimens known to be more than 200 years old. Originally, it was possibly native from Turkey eastwards to Afghanistan and Pakistan, but this is hard to ascertain, as it has been cultivated for thousands of years and has become widely naturalized, especially around the Mediterranean.

Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) recommended pomegranate root bark to expel tapeworms – an efficient, but nauseating method. His life is described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

Juice and rind are anti-inflammatory, having a high content of anti-oxidants. Pomegranate is probably an efficient remedy against breast, colon, and prostate cancer. The leaves, which have antibacterial properties, are applied to wounds. In Ayurvedic medicine, the bitter rind is used to treat dysentery, and in the West for diarrhoea.

In Greek mythology, King Peleus was about to marry the beautiful sea nymph Thetis, but, unfortunately, they had forgotten to invite the goddess of strife, Eris, to the wedding. As a revenge, Eris let a golden apple roll in among the guests, and in the fruit skin she had carved: “For the most beautiful one.”

Three of the goddesses, Hera, Athene, and Aphrodite, began arguing, to whom of the three the title should be bestowed. Zeus advised them to go to Troy to consult Prince Paris. Off they went, and upon arrival in Troy, each of them promised Prince Paris a reward, if he chose her: Hera promised him power, Athene fame and wisdom, and Aphrodite the most beautiful woman. He chose the latter – hereby indirectly causing the long siege of Troy, related in Homer’s poem Iliad.

Pomegranate juice is very refreshing. It is also added to the alcoholic drinks Grenadine and Campari, adding a bright red colour and a bitter taste. In Morocco, an extract of unripe fruits is used for tanning leather goods. Due to its pretty flowers, pomegranate is often cultivated as an ornamental.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the pomegranate, being a short form of malum punicum (‘Punic apple’), referring to the Phoenician Punic Empire, which was situated in present-day Tunisia.

The specific name is derived from the Latin granatus (‘with many seeds’). The common name stems from the French pomme (‘apple’), ultimately from the Latin pomum (‘fruit’ or ‘fruit tree’), and granatus.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The plant was introduced to Brazil around 1658, and to Suriname around 1686. It may have been introduced to southern North America from Africa in the early 1700s.

Today, it is cultivated in warmer regions around the world, being an important ingredient in the cuisines of Asia, the Middle East, and the southern United States.

It may grow to 2 m tall, leaves palmate, to 20 cm long and across, with 5-7 lobes, flowers to 8 cm in diameter, petals 5, white or yellow petals, usually with dark purple spots at the base, pistil white or yellow, stigma dark purple. The fruit is a capsule, to 18 cm long, with 5 ridges.

The generic name is derived from Arabic ḥabb al-misk (‘pills of musk’), referring to the musk-scented seeds.

The specific name is derived from the Latin esca (‘food’) and ulentus (‘abounding in’), thus ‘fit for human consumption’. The English name ladies’ fingers refers to the fruits, which somewhat resemble the bony fingers of an elderly lady.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The trunk is straight, sometimes to 45 m tall, with greyish, rough, peeling bark, leaves alternate, oblong or elliptic, to 20 cm long and 9 cm broad, rounded at the base, tip pointed, green and glossy above, silvery or bronze-coloured below.

Inflorescences are cauliflorous, situated on large branches in clusters with up to 30 flowers, calyx bell-shaped, petals 3, bright yellow, to 7 cm across. They bloom at night, their strong odour attracting bats, which are the main pollinators. By the following morning, the calyx, petals, and stamens have fallen off.

The fruit is globular or ellipsoid, to 25 cm across/long, with a hard husk, green or brown, covered in sharp, thick spines. It weighs up to 3 kg. The interior is divided into 5 chambers with soft, edible, sweet, whitish or pale yellow pulp, enclosing the large, chestnut-brown seeds. The flesh emits a distinctive strong odour, which some people find pleasant, others revolting. (I am among the latter.)

The generic name stems from the Malay word duri (‘thorn’), referring to the prickly husk. The specific name is derived from Italian zibetto (‘civet’), either alluding to the pungent smell, similar to that of civets (family Viverridae), or perhaps indicating, that civets are attracted by the odor.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The earliest cultivation was in Peru around 6000 B.C., and it was known in the Indus Valley around 3000 B.C., where it was spun and woven. It was also cultivated early in Egypt and Mexico. Cotton cloth was introduced to the Mediterranean area by Arab traders in the 8th Century, and in the 12th Century Europeans began producing their own cotton cloth, though it was expensive and often mixed with wool. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century greatly increased production speed and efficiency, changing cotton cloth to become a cheap product.

The rapid expansion of cotton production in southern United States could only take place by enslaving thousands of Africans, who were forced to work on large plantations, often under cruel conditions.

The generic name is derived from Assyrian guzippu (‘cloth’), in Arabic corrupted to korsuf (‘cotton’). The common name originally came from Arabic quṭun, of uncertain origin. This became cotone in old Genoese Italian, coton in Old French, cotun in Anglo-Norman, and cotoun in Middle English.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an herb with a woody lower stem, sometimes growing to 2.5 m tall, leaves alternate, deeply 3-5-lobed, to 15 cm long, margin entire or toothed, flowers to 10 cm across, petals white, pale yellow, or pink, with dark red or purple centre. As the fruit matures, which takes about 6 months, the calyx becomes fleshy and dark crimson.

In Senegal and other African countries, and in various Asian countries, the green leaves are eaten as a spicy vegetable. In Nepal, the calyx is eaten raw or pickled. From the calyx, jam and a red drink, called karkade, are produced. In Europe and North America, the calyx is used for food colouring. Bast is produced from the stem fibres.

Traditionally, roselle has been used as a diuretic and as a mild laxative. In Brazil, the root is used as a stomachic, and also as an emollient. The Naga people of north-eastern India drink an extract of the root for constipation and stomach ache, and as an emollient and carminative. The red calyx contains antocyanins, and research indicates that these substances can prevent rheumatism, diabetes, and colon cancer. Antocyanins are excellent anti-oxidants, which can subdue infections. The seeds are also a good source of anti-oxidants.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek ibiskos, applied to the common marsh-mallow (Althaea officinalis) by Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40-90 A.D.), whose life and career are described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

The specific name is of unknown origin. The common name is French, a diminutive of rose, referring to the red calyx, which, with a bit of imagination, resembles a small rose.

The plant is known by a huge number of other names, including Jamaica sorrel, Indian sorrel, Guinea sorrel, Queensland jelly plant, jelly okra, Florida cranberry. The word sorrel is an old expression for a special type of red, found in the seeds of some Rumex species, in the roselle calyx, and in other plants.

Many species of this genus are described on the page Plants – Plant families etc.: Mallows and allies.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan, where roselle is commonly cultivated.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This tree is native to southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America where it grows in swamps and along rivers. It is widely cultivated elsewhere as an ornamental tree, and in the West a close relative, P. glabra, is a popular house plant.

The Guiana chestnut may reach a height up to 23 m, with a trunk to 70 cm across, often with buttresses, bark smooth, green when young, later brown or grey. The long-stalked leaves are alternate, shiny, palmate, with 5-9 lanceolate, oblong, obovate, or elliptic leaflets, to 30 cm long and 15 cm wide, tip rounded or pointed, margin entire.

The short-stalked flowers are solitary, to 5.5 cm across, fragrant, with 5 greenish-white or brown petals, to 32 cm long, which open like a peeled banana, revealing up to 250 brush-like stamens, whose colour vary greatly, most often being yellow or white with red tips, but may also be yellowish-orange, red, purple, white, or cream-coloured.

The fruit is a woody capsule, usually ellipsoid, to 30 cm long and 15 cm wide. When mature, it splits into 5 valves, revealing 10-25 nuts, to 3 cm long, which are surrounded by white, fleshy pulp.

The seeds are edible. In South America and Mexico, they are boiled, fried, or roasted, and then ground to make a chocolate-like beverage. Seeds are reported to taste like roasted peanuts or chestnuts. In Panama and Colombia, the seeds are ground into flour for baking bread, and in South America the young leaves and flowers are cooked as a vegetable. The wood is used by carpenters, and pulp made from the wood is used to produce paper and boxes. The bark yields a dye, which is used for sails, ropes, and fishing nets.

The generic name is derived from the Guyanese name of the plant, whereas the specific name refers to its preferred habitat near water.

Other common names include saba nut, Malabar chestnut, French peanut, and money tree. The latter name supposedly refers to a story, in which a poor man prayed for money. When he encountered this ‘odd’ plant, he regarded it as an omen, brought some seeds from it home, and made money from selling plants grown from the seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a small evergreen tree, occasionally to 12 m tall, leaves alternate, leathery, shining, elliptic, usually to 30 cm long and 10 cm wide, but sometimes larger, margin entire. Young leaves are red or reddish-pink (see picture), caused by high concentrations of anthocyanins, which act as a sunscreen to protect the leaf from damage. They also contain tannins, which deter herbivores.

The cacao tree is cauliflorous, with flowers sprouting directly on the trunk and larger branches. The flowers are small, to 2 cm across, petals white, cream-coloured, yellowish, pink, or reddish-pink. They bloom all year round and are pollinated by tiny midges (Forcipomyia). The fruit is ovoid, pale green when young, yellow, orange, or red when ripe, to 30 cm long and 10 cm wide. It contains up to 60 seeds, surrounded by white pulp.

The Olmecs in Mexico cultivated the cacao tree for its beans as early as 400 B.C. They were crushed to make a drink, mixed with spices like chilli and vanilla. For a long time, it was believed that the word chocolate stemmed from the Nahuatl word chocolatl. However, early texts document that the Nahuatl word for chocolate drink is cacahuatl (‘cacao water’).

The Mayans and the Aztecs used cacao in engagement and marriage ceremonies and in religious rituals.

Today, the beans are utilized to make cacao powder, cacao butter, and chocolate. To make chocolate, the beans are fermented, dried, roasted, husked, and then ground up to make a thick paste, called chocolate liquor, which is the basis of all chocolate products.

The fruit flesh tastes a bit like passion fruit or mango. It is used in some countries as an ingredient in juices, jams, and ice creams.

Cacao butter is sometimes added to lip salves and face creams.

The beans are rich in antioxidants.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek theos (‘god’ or ‘divine’) and broma (‘food’), thus ‘food of the gods’. The specific name is the Spanish spelling of the Mayan name, which is written as kakaw. In Nahuatl, cacahuatl means ‘seed of the cacao tree’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an evergreen tree, to 30 m tall, with a trunk diameter to 80 cm. Occasionally it forms buttresses. The smooth bark is greyish-brown or reddish-brown, containing a milky sap. The stalked leaves are alternate, thick, leathery, on young trees deeply lobed, on older trees oblong or ovate, dark green and shining, to 40 cm long and 18 cm wide.

Inflorescences, to 12 cm long and 7 cm wide, sprout directly from the trunk or larger branches (cauliflory), occasionally from twigs. The numerous small flowers develop into a so-called syncarpous fruit, i.e. a fruit with numerous carpels, packed closely together. The jackfruit contains hundreds, or even thousands, of individual flowers. The fruit may be up to 90 cm long and 50 cm wide, and weigh as much as 50 kilos. A mature tree can produce 100-200 fruits a year. Below the knobbly outer layer of the fruit is a whitish mass, surrounding the nut-like seeds. Both are delicious when boiled. A slightly acid layer around the nuts can be eaten raw.

The generic name is derived from the Greek artos (‘bread’) and karpos (‘fruit’), a name given by Scottish-German botanist Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-1798) and his son Johann Georg Forster (1754-1794), who participated as botanists during the second voyage of James Cook (1728-1779), which took place 1772-1775.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek heteros (‘different’) and phyllon (‘leaf’), alluding to the leaf shape changing from lobed to simple.

The word jackfruit is derived from the Portuguese word jaca, which is thought to be derived from a South Indian Malayalam term, chakka pazham, which is again derived from the ancient Dravidian root ka or kay (‘fruit’ or ‘vegetable’). (Source: Franklin Southworth 2005. Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. Routledge-Curzon)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a deciduous tree, usually less than 12 m tall, occasionally to 20 m or more, trunk pale brown, bark smooth or with shallow grooves and horizontal markings. It contains a milky sap. The stalked leaves are ovate or heart-shaped, often with 3-5 deep lobes on young trees and almost entire on older trees, but even older trees may have both types. They grow to 20 cm long and 10 cm wide, tip pointed, margin with small teeth, upper surface rough, underside with short hairs.

The plant is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate individuals, male flowers in pendent, cylindric spikes, to 8 cm long, with up to 200 flowers, female inflorescences ball-shaped, green, to 2.5 cm across, each flower with a long, thread-like, white or pale pink style. The fruit is also ball-shaped, to 3 cm across, bright orange and fleshy when ripe, consisting of many small drupes.

The male flowers produce a lot of pollen, which causes allergic reactions in some people.

As its name implies, fibres of paper mulberry were formerly utilized to produce paper, and in parts of the Pacific, cloth is still made from the bark. The wood is used for making furniture and utensils, and the roots can be used as rope. The orange fruit is edible, and the leaves can also be eaten when cooked. Fruit, leaves, and bark were formerly used in traditional medicine.

When male and female plants grow together, and seeds are produced, paper mulberry spreads rapidly. Birds and other animals eat the fruits and thus help dispersing the species. It can also form dense stands via its spreading root system, often dispelling indigenous plants.

In the United States, it was introduced as a fast-growing shade tree, but due to its vigorous growth it soon began to displace native species, and today it is considered to be an invasive in the south-eastern states. In Pakistan, it is regarded as one of the worst weeds, and it is a highly significant invasive plant on the pampas of Argentina. It is also one of the most dominant invasive species in forests of Ghana and Uganda.

The genus was named for Pierre Marie Auguste Broussonet (1761-1807), professor of botany at the botanical garden in Montpellier. He brought a male tree of B. papyrifera from a botanical garden in Scotland to Paris, where a female tree was growing. The result was that he was able to describe the fruit.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘paper-bearing’.

Paper mulberry is very common in the lowlands of Taiwan, popping up almost anywhere. The pictures below are all from the city of Taichung.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a small deciduous tree or large shrub, to 10 m tall, with smooth white bark. The leaves are large, to 25 cm long and 18 cm wide, with 3 or 5 deep lobes. The fruit is tear-shaped, to 5 cm long, intially green, which turns to purple or brown at maturity. The soft reddish or brown flesh is sweet-tasting and contains many tiny seeds. The fruits are eaten fresh or dried, or processed into jam or various types of desserts.

The fig has also been used medicinally. The latex is a laxative, and the latex from unripe fruits was a remedy for warts and internal parasites.

The world production of figs was about 1.2 million tonnes in 2020, with Turkey, Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt as the largest producers.

Fig leaves are mentioned in one of the most famous Christian myths, which relates The Fall of Man. The text in Genesis, Chapter 3:1-7, reads as follows:

“Now, the serpent was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?”

The woman said to the serpent, “We may eat fruit from the trees in the garden, but God did say, ‘You must not eat fruit from the tree that is in the middle of the garden, and you must not touch it, or you will die’.”

“You will not certainly die,” the serpent said to the woman, “for God knows that when you eat from it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.”

When the woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good for food and pleasing to the eye, and also desirable for gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it. She also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it. Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they realized they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves.”

The generic name is the classical Latin word for fig.

The specific name is the feminine form of the adjective Caricus, a shortening of Caria and ficus (‘fig’), thus ‘the fig from Caria’, in Ancient Greek Karia, a Greek province in present-day south-western Turkey.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Male and female flowers are usually found on separate trees, although they may occur on the same tree. Male catkins are up to 3.5 cm long, female catkins to 2 cm. The edible and sweet fruits, to 1.5 cm long, are white at first, later dark purple, resembling fruits of bramble (Rubus fruticosus). Some cultivated forms have pink fruits.

White mulberry is probably native to China, but true wild populations are not known. Cultivation as a fodder plant for caterpillars of the silk moth (Bombyx mori), called silkworms, began more than 4,700 years ago in China, and spread to the Indus Valley a few hundred years later. From the Middle East, it was introduced to southern Europe more than a thousand years ago. Today, it is widely cultivated around the world.

After gorging themselves with mulberry leaves, the silkworms spin a single, continuous, up to 900 m long thread into a cocoon. To prevent the moth from breaking the cocoon, it is steamed or dipped in hot water. Then the cocoon is unwound, often with 5-8 strands combined to form a single thread, which is dyed and woven into fabric.

The foliage is also cut to feed livestock, being rich in protein. In India, the wood is used to make furniture, household utensils, and agricultural tools.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for mulberry, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘white’, alluding to the initial fruit colour of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These plants, comprising about 85 species of the genus Musa, are native to subtropical and tropical areas, from the Indian Subcontinent eastwards across Indochina and southern China to Taiwan, and thence southwards through Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and New Guinea to north-eastern Australia.

The leaves, which grow in spirals, may be up to 2.7 m long and 60 cm wide. They are often tattered, torn into horizontal strips by the wind, often all the way to the midrib.

When a banana plant is mature, a harder stem develops inside the pseudostem, emerging at the top of the plant, carrying a single, huge inflorescence. The fruits grow in several large clusters, sitting in rows down the stout flower stalk, each containing between 10 and 30 bananas. They are so heavy that the stalk is bent downwards.

Bananas were probably first cultivated in New Guinea, and today they are grown worldwide in warmer countries. Most are grown for their edible fruits, raw or cooked, the latter often called plantains. Other types are cultivated for their fibres, to make wine and beer, or as ornamentals.

The huge leaves have a wide range of usage, being both flexible and waterproof. They are much utilized for wrapping, including in cooking, where various foods are often wrapped in the leaves before being steamed.

In various Hindu and Buddhist ceremonies, the leaves are used as decoration, often having a symbolic meaning. In former times, in India and Southeast Asia, banana leaves were used as writing material. Before the introduction of plastic, they were also utilized in many areas as rain ponchos.

Today, almost all edible bananas are cultivars of two wild species, Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana, and the hybrid between them, called Musa × paradisiaca. Formerly, the scientific name of edible bananas was Musa sapientum, which is no longer accepted.

A large number of pictures, depicting bananas or banana leaves, are shown on the page Plants – Plant families etc.: Bananas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an evergreen tree, usually below 15 m tall, but occasionally taller, leaves short-stalked, alternate, dark green, to 15 cm long and 7 cm broad. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, rarely on the same tree. The small flowers are bell-shaped, pale yellow, waxy and fleshy, male flowers in groups up to 10, each to 7 mm long, female flowers solitary or in groups up to 3, to 1 cm long.

The fruit is ovoid or pear-shaped, smooth, yellow, to 9 cm long and 5 cm across, with a fleshy husk, which, when ripe, splits into two halves along a ridge. Inside is a purplish-brown, shining seed, to 3 cm long and 2 cm wide, with a red or crimson aril (a layer surrounding the seed).

The seed is the source of nutmeg, and the aril is the source of mace. They are used as spices in dishes and baked goods, especially in the cuisines of Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. However, they must be used with care, as high doses (more than c. 5 g) can be toxic.

Nutmeg and mace were known in India and Arabia already in the 6th Century, and by the 12th Century it had reached Europe. Allegedly, they were among the fragrant herbs and spices strewn in the streets of Rome during the coronation of Henry VI (Heinrich, 1165-1197).

In traditional medicine, nutmeg is used to ease diarrhoea, indigestion, flatulence, stomach cramps, headache, and fever, and it is added to oils or ointments for treating rheumatism, arthritis, and muscular pain. It has also been used as an aphrodisiac.

For its aroma, the essential oil is added to perfumes, soap, and other beauty products.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek myristikos (‘fragrant’), like the specific name referring to the fragrance of the seeds and aril.

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is native to south-eastern Brazil, but is cultivated elsewhere for its fruits, which are edible and sweet. They are also processed into marmalade or a drink, or fermented to make wine.

The generic name was given in honour of Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.), whose life is described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

The specific name is derived from the Latin caulis (‘stem’) and flora (‘flower’), referring to the flowers sprouting directly on the trunk.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A shrub or small tree, to 10 m tall, with a slender, crooked trunk and drooping branches. The bark is thin and smooth, shed in flakes, revealing the greenish underbark. Leaves short-stalked, opposite, leathery, oblong, elliptic, or ovate, to 15 cm long and 7 cm broad, with a prominent midrib and 10-20 pairs of lateral veins, margin entire.

The fragrant white flowers, to 2.5 cm across, are solitary or in small groups in the leaf axils, with numerous yellowish-white stamens. The fruit is a fleshy berry, ball-shaped, ovoid, or pear-shaped, to 9 cm across/long, green when young, changing to yellow when ripe. It contains aromatic, white, cream-coloured, yellow, or pink pulp and many small, hard seeds.

As almost ripe, the fruit has a fresh, slightly sour taste, whereas ripe ones have a sweet taste. Over-ripe fruits are not very pleasant, having a sickly taste. Juice and marmalade is also made from the fruit. The foliage is used as fodder, and tannins and dyes are obtained from bark and leaves. In Hawaii, the wood is used for the smoking meat, and as it is resistant to insect and fungal attack, it is used for roof construction in Nigeria. Juice from the leaves is added to shampoo products, allegedly being able to treat dandruff, reduce hair fall, and promote hair growth.

In traditional medicine, the plant is used for inflammation, diabetes, caries, wounds, pain, fever, diarrhoea, rheumatism, lung problems, and ulcers.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek psidion, the term for the pomegranate (Punica granatum), presumably referring to the similarity in shape between their fruits. The specific name is the Arawak (Caribbean language) term for the fruit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows to 12 m tall, bark greyish-brown, pinkish-grey, or reddish, strips off in flakes, leaves opposite, elliptic, to 25 cm and 10 cm wide, aromatic when crushed. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary panicles with up to 30 white or yellowish-white flowers, to 2.5 cm across, with 4 petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is a bell-shaped berry, to 8 cm long, usually various shades of red, but may also be white, pale green, purple, or even black. The skin is crisp, the flesh white and spongy, with a fresh taste.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek suzygos (‘paired’), presumably alluding to the opposite leaves, whereas the specific name refers to Semarang, a city in Java. When German-Dutch botanist and entomologist Karl Ludwig von Blume (1796-1862) named the plant Myrtus samarangensis in 1826, he was deputy director of agriculture at the Bogor Botanical Gardens in Java. Presumably, he observed the tree in Semarang.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an aquatic plant, growing in stagnant waters, spreading via thick rhizomes, which are buried in the bottom. It has large, waxy, water-repellent, circular leaves, to 80 cm across, floating or raised above the surface, with the stalk attached to the centre of the underside.

The fragrant flowers, to 30 cm across, rise above the water, petals numerous, white, pinkish, or dark pink with yellow base. They open in the morning and close at night. The large, conical, yellow, sponge-like receptacle, which has 9-17 individual pistils, is surrounded by numerous yellowish stamens. The fruit is woody, cone-shaped, green, containing the nut-like seeds.

All parts of the plant are edible, in particular rhizome and seeds.

The rhizome, leaves, and seeds are widely used in traditional Indian and Oriental medicine for treatment of numerous ailments. Leaves are used against vomiting of blood, nose-bleeding, and blood in the urine, flowers are used for diarrhea, cholera, fever, and intense thirst, and rhizomes have diuretic, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Its role in Buddhism and Hinduism is described on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

The generic name is derived from the Sinhalese word for lotus, nelum. The specific name is derived from the Latin nux (‘nut’) and fer (‘to carry’), thus ‘nut-bearing’, referring to the edible seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

 

An evergreen shrub or small tree, usually less than 15 m high, older trees with a gnarled and twisted trunk. The leaves are silvery-green, oblong, to 10 cm long and 3 cm wide, flowers small, fragrant, creamy white or yellowish, to 1 cm across, in axillary clusters, to 5 cm long. The fruit is a drupe, to 2.5 cm long, green when young, black or dark purple when ripe, containing an ovoid, hard seed, embedded in fruit flesh.

Since Biblical times, olive oil has been used to soften and beautify the skin, and it is also a good remedy against dry hair. When taken daily, it may protect against heart disease, and it may also lower the cholesterol level in the blood. New research has shown that it may prevent stroke, breast and colon cancer, arthritis, gout, and migraine. Warm oil, dripped into the ear, can relieve earache. The oil is also used as a laxative, whereas an infusion of the leaves is taken for infections, colds, fever, flu, meningitis, herpes, shingles, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and diarrhoea, and is also applied to wounds and psoriasis. The timber is used for carving and turning.

According to the Old Testament, Moses made a decree that people in charge of tending the olive groves were excepted from doing military service.

In Greek mythology, Athene was the goddess of war, but also protector of cities. She vied with the god of the seas, Poseidon, who was going to be the tutelary deity of a newly established town at the Saronian Bay. Poseidon let a spring well forth, but unfortunately it was salty. Athene created the olive tree, and the population of the town elected her. In her honour, the town was named Athens, and groves of olive trees were planted around it.

Olive trees can live for more than 2,000 years. Some specimens in the Gethsemane Garden, beneath the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, were young trees, when Jesus lived in this area.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek elaia, the classical name of the olive tree. It is the origin of the word ‘oil’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a small, deciduous tree, to 10 m tall, with many branches, leaves compound, to 30 cm long, with 5-11 opposite, ovate or oblong leaflets, to 9 cm long. The small, fragrant, bell-shaped flowers, to 7 mm across, grow in branched clusters, to 10 cm long, in the leaf axils, petals whitish, pink, rose-red, or lavender-coloured, often purplish or dark pink towards the base.

The yellow or orange-yellow fruit is large, to 15 cm long, ovate in outline and star-shaped in cross-section, very juicy, with a refreshing sour taste when young, whereas ripe fruits are sweeter. They are rich in vitamin C, fibers, and antioxidants. The fruits may also be cooked or made into juice or marmalade.

The generic name refers to Averrhoes (1126-1198), an Arabian philosopher and physician, who translated the works of Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.).

The specific name is derived from karambal, the word for this tree in Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language, spoken by Marathi people in the Indian state of Maharashtra.

The pictures below are all from Taichung, Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an annual herb, sometimes growing to 1.5 m tall, stem and leaves greyish-green, leaves large, to 20 cm long, ovate or oblong, margin wavy and toothed, upper leaves stem-clasping. The flowers are large, to 18 cm across, solitary, long-stalked, petals 4, highly variable in colour: white, pink, red, mauve, or purple, often with a dark purple spot at the base. The fruit is a rounded capsule, to 5 cm across, topped with a cap, consisting of 12-18 radiating stigmas. The seeds are spread through openings beneath the disk.

All parts of the plant exude a white, milky latex when wounded, which contains alkaloids like morphine, codeine, and papaverine.

Sources indicate that the opium poppy was cultivated as far back as the Sumerian Empire in Mesopotamia (c. 4500-1900 B.C.) for opium, which is obtained from dried latex from cuts on the capsule. It was taken as a pain killer and a sedative, and to treat cough and infections.

Today, it is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used on bread and in other foods. They contain no alkaloids.

According to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.), the generic name was the classical Latin word for the Moon. It was also used for poppies, referring to their round, moon-shaped petals. Pliny’s life is described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

The specific name is derived from the Latin somnus (‘sleep’) and fer (‘I bear’), thus ‘inducing sleep’, alluding to its sedative properties.

It is well-known that smoking opium is highly addictive. During my travels, I have twice encountered elderly men who took opium.

In 1973, my friend Arne Koch Christoffersen and I spent some time in a village in Luristan, Iran, related in depth on the page Travel episodes – Iran 1973: In the mountains of Luristan. Our host Muhammad was smoking opium, which in those days was permitted for elderly Iranian men.

In the courtyard, Muhammad spread out a small rug and cushions, lay down, and proceeded to prepare the pipes. The opium was ignited with a piece of glowing charcoal from the fireplace. Some days earlier, we had been talking about the first landing on the Moon, a few years prior. After enjoying five or six pipes, Muhammad pointed at his pipe and said: “This is my Apollo! Now I’m flying to the Moon!”

The second time was in Rajasthan, India, in 1991, when my friend Søren Lauridsen and I paid a visit to Bishnoi farmer Bhiya Ram. After enjoying a meal, he offered us opium. He ground a brown lump of opium into powder in a fine silver mortar, adding a little water, and this mixture was filtered through a finely woven bag. He now poured some of the brown water into his cupped hand, from where we sucked it up. Then he poured some of the liquid into our hands, whereupon he sucked it up. This ritual is a bond of friendship among the Bishnoi, who do not smoke or drink alcohol, opium being their only vice.

Our stay at Bhiya Ram’s farm is described in depth on the page Travel episodes – India 1991: Bishnoi people live in harmony with nature.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is an evergreen, woody, perennial climber, usually up to 10 m long, sometimes more, stem striated, to 1 cm across, leaves stalked, alternate, glossy green above, dull green below, deeply 3-lobed, to 20 cm long, margin finely toothed, often with two small glands at the base.

Flowers are usually solitary, to 7.5 cm across, growing from the leaf axils. They have 5 oblong sepals and 5 slightly broader petals, all white, to 3 cm long, forming a fringe, on which are two rows of wavy, thread-like filaments, white at the tip and purple at the base (or sometimes the other way around). Their purpose is to attract pollinators. The centre of the flower has 5 robust stamens with oblong, bowl-shaped anthers, and a style with 3 outward-bending branches, each ending in a split, club-like stigma.

The fruit is a smooth, ovoid or elliptic berry, to 7.5 cm long, with a tough, leathery rind, green when young, and when ripe wrinkled, yellow in some forms, in others dark purple with pale specks, which encloses aromatic pulp with about 100 (or in some types up to 250) brown, hard seeds, to 2.5 mm long. It has sweet and slightly acidid taste, eaten raw or made into a drink or marmalade.

The leaves are often used in herbal teas, having antioxidant, sedative, and anti-inflammatory properties.

The generic name is derived from the Latin passio (‘suffering’), referring to the sufferings of Jesus during his last days, referred to as ‘The Passion’. According to legend, a passion flower climbed the cross, on which Jesus was crucified, its leaves providing shade and coolness to the dying man.

It is said that it was Spanish missionaries, in the 15th Century, who first identified the unique physical structures of the plant as symbols of passion and crucifixion of Jesus:

The pointed tips of the leaves represent the Holy Lance, which pierced the body of Jesus.

The tendrils represent the whips used in the flagellation of Jesus.

The 10 petals and sepals represent the 10 faithful apostles, excluding Peter, who denied Jesus three times, and Judas, who betrayed him.

The flower’s filaments represent the crown of thorns.

The ovary with its receptacle represents the Holy Grail.

The 3 stigmas represent the 3 nails used in the crucifixion, and the 5 anthers below them Jesus’ 5 wounds (4 by the nails and one by the lance).

The 3 epicalyx lobes symbolize the three Marias, who were present, when Jesus died.

The blue colour of the flowers of many species represents the blue dress of Virgin Mary.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘edible’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It comes from a perennial, woody vine, which can grow to 10 m long, climbing via aerial roots, and it may also sprout where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, to 10 cm long and 6 cm wide. The inflorescences are pendent spikes with up to 150 flowers, growing from the leaf axils, to 8 cm long, lengthening up to 15 cm, as the fruits mature. The fruit is a drupe, to 5 mm across, dark red when mature.

It is cultivated for its dried fruit, known as a peppercorn, which is used as a spice and seasoning. The fruits are dried as 3 types: black pepper is unripe, green fruits, which are boiled and sun-dried, until the skin shrivels and turns black. White pepper is made from fully ripe fruits, from which the outer skin is removed. Green pepper consists of unripe fruits, which are often freeze-dried to maintain their colour.

Medicinally, pepper is used for indigestion and flatulence, and a diluted essential oil is applied to painful muscles.

The generic name is derived from Sanskrit pippali, an ancient name for long pepper (Piper longum), but this term evolved to cover black pepper as well. It was adopted by the Greeks in the form peperi, and by the Romans in the form piper.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘black’, referring to the dried fruit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rolled oats are a popular breakfast meal, either with milk or yogurt, or cooked as porridge. However, most of the production is used as animal fodder, especially for horses.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for oat, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sown’ or ‘planted’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This plant is a native of Southeast Asia, but is cultivated elsewhere in the tropics and subtropics. It often becomes naturalized.

The seeds are edible, cooked as grain. In East and Southeast Asia, a nourishing drink is made from powdered seeds, and also an alcoholic drink. Necklaces are made from seeds of hard-shelled varieties. Leaves and stems are used for fodder.

The generic name is a Latinized form of Ancient Greek koix, according to Greek scholar and botanist Theophrastos (c. 371 – c. 287 B.C.) the name of an Egyptian palm species, from whose leaves various weaved articles were produced. Why Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) linked the name to this grass genus is anybody’s guess. His life and career are described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek Eleusis, the name of a town, in which initiation rites in a cult centered around the goddesses Demeter and Persephone took place. This cult is believed to have been based on an older agrarian cult.

The specific name is derived from coracan, one of the popular names of finger millet, of uncertain origin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

About 70% of the barley produced is used as animal fodder, and almost 30% as an ingredient in the production of beer and alcohol, and in various foods.

In a few cultures, barley is used for human consumption, in soups and stews, and to make bread. Among Tibetans, roasted barley flour, called tsampa, is a staple food. The flour is mixed with hot or cold water, or tea, to a porridge-like substance, which is then eaten. Thus, tsampa is easy to make a quick meal from – very convenient for a nomadic people.

In China and Taiwan, barley flower is an ingredient in a green type of sticky rice dumplings, called qingtuan, which are consumed during the Qing Ming Festival (‘tomb-sweeping’). This festival is described on the page Culture: Graves.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for barley, derived from Proto-Italic horzdeom (‘bristly’), alluding to the long, prickly awns. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

The Old English word for barley was bere, which gave rise to the word beer. The word barn also derives from bere, meaning ‘barley-house’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is believed that Asian rice was first domesticated in central China about 10,000 years ago. Today, it is the most important food crop, being the staple food for more than half of the world’s population.

In 2020, the world production was about 750 million tons, the main procucers being China with about 210 million tons, and India with about 180 million tons. Other major producers are Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Vietnam.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for rice, whereas the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘sown’ or ‘planted’.

The pictures below all show Asian rice.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The generic name is the classical Latin word for rye, whereas the specific name is derived from Proto-Indo-European keres, from ker (‘to grow’).

In former days, cereals, but in particular rye, were often attacked by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). It was very common, and its contents of toxic alkaloids would often cause ergotism, a dreadful disease, which would attack the central nervous system, causing symptoms like spasms, diarrhoea, itching, mania, psychosis, nausea, and vomiting. It could also cause grangrene. Previously, many people died from this disease. One example took place in southern France in 994, where about 40,000 people died from ergotism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It originated in Africa, and is now widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions. The annual production is around 60 million tons, making it the fifth most important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley.

The generic name is derived from the Latin syricum (‘from Syria’). The specific name probably refers to the grains, which can have many different colours.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In 2020, the world production of wheat was about 760 million tons. The largest producers were China (c. 135 million tons), India (c. 108 million tons), Russia (c. 86 million tons), United States (c. 50 million tons), Canada (c. 35 million tons), France (c. 30 million tons), and Pakistan and Ukraine (both c. 25 million tons).

The generic name is derived from the Latin tritus, originally from tero (‘to graze’ or ‘to grind’), the specific name from aestas (‘summer’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The largest maize growers are the United States (c. 360 million tons), China (c. 260 million tons), Brazil (c. 100 million tons), and Argentina (c. 60 million tons).

The generic name is the classical Greek term for an unidentified cereal, whereas the specific name is derived from Spanish maíz, a corruption of Taino mahiz. Taino is an extinct Arawakan language, once spoken in huge areas of the Caribbean.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A spiny, evergreen shrub or small tree, occasionally growing to 12 m tall, with a trunk to 30 cm across, branches drooping, with short, sharp, straight or hooked thorns and zigzag twigs. The leaves are alternate, ovate or elliptic, dark-green and smooth above, hairy below, to 6 cm long and 4 cm wide, tip rounded, margin with tiny teeth.

The flowers are tiny, to 3 mm across, greenish-yellow, growing in clusters of 7-20 in the leaf axils. They emit a faint fragrance, which some people find unpleasant. The fruit is a ball-shaped, ovoid, or oblong drupe, to 6 cm long in some varieties, but usually much smaller, skin smooth, pale green when young, then turning yellow and finally reddish-brown when ripe.

The fruit is taken for various lung ailments, cough, fever, indigestion, and gall bladder problems. The dried fruit is a mild laxative. The seeds are sedative, used for diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, and dysentery. A poultice of bark, fruits or seeds is applied to wounds and rheumatic areas. A poultice of the leaves is applied for liver problems, asthma, and fever. A decoction of the root is given for fever, to expel tapeworms, and to increase menstrual flow.

Presumably, the generic name is derived from Persian zizfum or zizafun, the word for Z. lotus. The specific name refers to the island of Mauritius, where this species occurs. Presumably, the type specimen was collected there.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It was initially described by German physician and botanist Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1716), who lived in Japan 1690-92. Later, in 1712, it was more thoroughly described, as Mespilus japonica, by Swedish botanist and physician Carl Peter Thunberg (1743-1828), who assumed that it was closely related to the common medlar (Mespilus germanica), which is not the case. Kaempfer and Thunberg are presented on the page People: Famous naturalists.

It is a large, evergreen shrub or a small tree, which may grow to 10 m tall, but is mostly less than 5 m, leaves alternate, to 25 cm long, leathery, dark green above, covered in yellowish-brown hairs below, margin toothed. Inflorescences are clusters of 3-10 strongly fragrant flowers, to 2 cm across, with 5 white petals. They appear in autumn or early in winter. The fruit is ball- or pear-shaped, or ovoid, to 5 cm long, skin yellow or orange, sometimes slightly reddish, smooth or downy. The succulent, sweet, slightly tangy flesh is white, yellow, or orange, seeds large, brown.

The fruit, which is eaten fresh, is low in sodium and high in vitamins A and B6, fibers, potassium, and manganese. It is also mixed in salads, jam, jelly, and chutney. Firm, young fruits are added to pies. The flowers are sometimes used in perfume.

The leaves are used medicinally to treat diarrhoea and depression, and also as animal fodder. The wood is very hard and is excellent for making rulers and knife handles, and in Japan it is used to make bokken (training swords).

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek erion (‘wool’) and botryon (‘cluster’), presumably alluding to the fruits, which grow in clusters and are often downy on the skin.

The common name is derived from Cantonese lou gwat (‘black orange’), originally referring to unripe kumquats (Citrus x japonensis), which are dark green. The name was mistakenly applied to loquats. Other common names are Japanese medlar and Japanese plum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“Come October,” Ruby said, “we’ll get enough in trade for those apples to make our winter a sight easier than it would be otherwise.”

She paused and thought a minute. “You don’t have a press, do you?” she said. When Ada said she thought they might indeed, Ruby whooped with joy.

“Hard cider is worth considerably more in trade than apples,” she said. “All we have to do is make it.”

 

 

 

In the past, the European crab apple (M. sylvestris) was thought to be the most important ancestor of the cultivated apple. However, research has shown that the main ancestor is in fact M. sieversii, which originates in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Researchers believe that this apple was brought to Europe by traders, who travelled on the famous Silk Road, by which Asian goods were brought to Europe, and vice versa. Over the years, this Kazakh apple has been crossed with the European crab apple and other wild species, growing in Siberia and the Caucasus, and further crossbreeding has resulted in today’s sweet apples.

Apples are eaten raw, or made into juice, cider, apple butter, and apple cider vinegar, or dried to make apple chips. They are also used in pies, muffins, fruit salads, and compotes. They are rich in fiber, vitamins, and antioxidants.

In England, the apple was first mentioned by King Alfred in about 885, in his translation of Liber Regulae Pastoralis (‘The Book of Pastoral Rules’, also known as ‘Gregory’s Pastoral Care’), a treatise on the responsibilities of the clergy, written by Pope Gregory I around 590.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for apple trees, derived from Ancient Greek malon (‘apple’).

The specific name of M. pumila is Latin, meaning ‘dwarf’, alluding to the generally smaller apples of this group.

Apples play a significant role in Greek, Norse, and Christian mythologies. More about this issue is found on the page Plants: Plants in folklore and poetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a small, deciduous tree, growing to 10 m tall, trunk gnarled, with a diameter up to 30 cm. Initially, young twigs are green, then purplish, and in their second year grey. The leaves are short-stalked, lanceolate, glossy green, to 13 cm long and 4.5 cm wide, margin toothed. The fragrant flowers are solitary or in pairs, to 5 cm across, appearing early in spring before the foliage, petals pale pink or white. The fruit is an ovoid drupe, to 6 cm long, with a green, velvety outer layer, called the hull, which splits open when the fruit is mature, revealing a hard shell, called the pyrena, which contains the single seed, the almond.

Almonds come in two varieties, bitter almonds, var. amara, and sweet almonds, var. dulcis. Bitter almonds contain amygdalin, a glucoside. When ingested, this glucoside is split into three substances: glucose, bitter oil, and the highly toxic Prussic acid. Fatal dosage of Prussic acid is c. 1 mg/kg body weight, so ingestion of many bitter almonds is very risky.

Sweet almonds, however, contain very little amygdalin, and they are delicious, used in cookies, desserts, and to make syrup. They are a common ingredient in Middle East kitchens, and in Mughal curries. They contain up to 50% oil, utilized as edible oil and in the production of marzipan. The oil, and the residues after pressing, are used in the cosmetic industry.

Almonds are antibacterial and anti-inflammatory, and they reduce the risk of cancer, dementia, and Alzheimer, and lower cholesterol levels in the blood. They are also an aid in weight loss, and the juice may be used for chapped lips. They also act as a mild laxative. Formerly, they were taken as an aphrodisiac. The essential oils in the seed are popular among masseuses and therapists.

In Greek mythology, Phyllis was a beautiful nymph who was deserted by her husband Demophon. She committed suicide by hanging herself in a tree, and on this very spot, the Gods let a beautiful flowering almond tree sprout.

In the Hebrew Tanakh, the almond was a symbol of promise due to its early flowering, and in the Christian Bible it is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis, 43:11, where it is described as “among the best of fruits.”

According to legend, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord, the sweet almonds would ripen, but if they were to forsake the path of the Lord, the bitter ones would predominate.

The generic name is a Latinized version of the classical Greek name of the plum tree, prounos. The specific name is a Latinized version of Ancient Greek amygdalos, the classical name of the almond tree.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

However, genetic studies indicate that it originated in Central Asia. Today, it is widely cultivated for its fruits, major producers being Turkey, northern India (Ladakh), Uzbekistan, Iran, Italy, Spain, Algeria, South Africa, and California.

A smallish tree, to 12 m tall, with a trunk diameter up to 40 cm, leaves ovate, to 9 cm and 8 cm wide, base rounded, tip pointed, margin finely toothed. The flowers, to 4.5 cm across, are solitary or in pairs, appearing before the leaves. They have 5 white or pinkish petals. The fruit is a drupe, to 2.5 cm across, yellow or orange, often with small red dots. The succulent flesh is sweet or sometimes slightly acidic. The single seed is enclosed in a hard, stony shell. A cooking oil can be extracted from the kernels.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a deciduous tree, growing to 25 m tall, trunk up to 1.5 m across, bark smooth, reddish-brown with prominent horizontal grey-brown lenticels on young trees, changing to blackish-brown and fissured on older trees. The leaves are short-stalked, alternate, ovate, pointed, to 14 cm long and 7 cm broad, margin toothed, leaf stalk with 2-5 small, red glands. In autumn, the leaves turn orange, brown, pink, or red.

The flowers are in clusters of 2-6 along the branches, long-stalked, to 3.5 cm across, petals 5, white, stamens yellowish. The fruit is a drupe, to 2.5 cm across in wild populations, often more in cultivated forms, yellowish-red, dark red, or dark purple, depending on variety. Each fruit contains a hard-shelled stone, to 1.2 cm long and 1 cm wide, kernels to 8 mm long.

Like other names, including the German Kirsch and the Italian cerasa, the English name cherry stems from the Latin cerasus, a derivation of Ancient Greek kerasos, the classical name of the cherry tree. Cerasus was also the classical Roman name of the modern town Giresun, situated on the Black Sea coast of Turkey, from where cherries during the Roman Era were exported to Rome.

The delicious fruits are eaten raw, or as an ingredient in countless cakes and desserts, and they are much utilized to make jam and wine. A kind of liqueur is made from an extract of berries and crushed stones. The wood is very durable, utilized for many items, including furniture, violins, and pipes, and formerly also for parts of windmill machinery.

The specific name is derived from the Latin avis (‘bird’), relating to the fact that various bird species love cherries, including starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and blackbird (Turdus merula).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruits occur in a wide variety of colours: yellow, pink, and numerous shades of red and purple, often produced abundantly. If they are not picked by people, they remain on the tree, until they are over-ripe and fall to the ground. Wild birds are not at all able to eat all these berries, which often lie almost in layers on the ground beneath the tree. Rotting cherry plums are much praised by butterflies and wasps.

The specific name is derived from Ancient Greek kerasos (‘cherry’), and the Latin ferus (‘wild’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The wood is used for various items, whereas the seeds are utilized in oil and cosmetics, and the fruit is fermented to make wine or liqueur.

Like wild cherry, it is cultivated in numerous countries around the world, but rarely escapes cultivation, at least in northern Europe. Its place of origin was probably the Near East.

The specific name is explained above (see wild cherry).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Japanese apricot is native to southern China and northern Indochina, but has been cultivated for hundreds of years elsewhere in China, and in Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. In the wild, it grows in forests and along streams, mainly in mountains, sometimes up to elevations around 3,000 m.

The fruit is very sour and is usually not eaten raw, but is widely used in East Asian cuisines to make juice and wine, and as a flavouring in sauces and alcohol. It is commonly pickled in salt in Taiwan and Japan.

It has been used in traditional medicine for over 3,000 years to treat various ailments, including stomach problems, fatigue, cough, and headache. Modern research has shown that it has antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties.

The flower is a significant cultural symbol, representing endurance and resilience due to its early flowering, often while there is still snow. It is the national flower of Taiwan, where it is very commonly cultivated.

The pictures below are all from Taiwan.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is believed to be descended from two wild pears, P. pyraster of Europe and P. caucasica of Turkey and the Caucasus, which are today regarded as subspecies of the common pear. Research indicates that these pears were collected from the wild long before they were cultivated. Greek scholar and botanist Theophrastos (c. 371-287 B.C.) and Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) give information about cultivation of pears. Pliny’s life is described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

P. communis is a deciduous tree, growing to 15 m tall, leaves alternate, glossy, dark green, ovate or elliptic, to 12 cm long and 5 cm wide, margin with fine teeth. The aromatic flowers, to 4 cm across, are white, sometimes with a pinkish tint, appearing in clusters. Stamens are yellow. The teardrop-shaped fruit varies greatly in size, shape, and colour, green, yellow, red, brown, or greyish, depending on the cultivar. It is consumed fresh, and also used in cooking, baking, preserves, and beverages.

The generic name is the classical Latin name for the pear tree, and the specific name is Latin, meaning ‘common’.

In my childhood garden, we had a a pear tree with large, thick-skinned, late-ripening, grey pears with firm flesh. My mother would peel them, boil them, and put them with the still very hot liquid into large glass jars, whose lid was tightened with rubber rings. Conserved in this way, they could keep for several months, and they would often constitute our winter dessert. Served with whipped cream they were delicious, and their taste had been added to the juice.

 

 

 

 

 

It is a small perennial shrub, occasionally to 2.5 m tall, with biennial stems. In its first year, an unbranched stem bears alternate, pinnately divided leaves with 5 (sometimes 7) leaflets, but usually no flowers. The leaflets are elliptic or oblong, to 9 cm long and 6 cm broad, with toothed margin and often small prickles on the leaf stalk.

In its second year, the stem doesn’t grow taller, but produces several branches with smaller leaves, which have 3 (sometimes 5) leaflets. The flowers are arranged in small terminal clusters on these side shoots, each flower to 1 cm across, with 5 white petals.

Though the fruit is called a berry, it is in fact not a berry, but consists of numerous drupelets with a red and fleshy outer layer, clustered around a central core. It is edible and sweet, to about 1 cm across in wild populations, but to 2.5 cm across in cultivated forms. In wild populations, you sometimes come across a rare form, chlorocarpus, with yellow fruits (see pictures below).

Besides being eaten fresh, the fruits are used in jam, jellies, preserves, syrups, and pastries. They are high in antioxidants. An oil, extracted from the seeds, contains Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids, which are used as a dietary supplement. Traditionally, an infusion of the leaves is used as an astringent to cure diarrhoea, and for treating sore throat and mouth ulcers.

The generic name is the classical Latin word for bramble (R. fruticosus). The specific name refers to the occurrence of raspberry on Mount Ida (1774 m), north-western Turkey, where Ancient Greeks were familiar with it. In Turkish, this mountain is called Kaz Dagi. (Source: A. Huxley (ed.) 1992. New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This word was borrowed from the Dutch koffie, which was a corruption of the Turkish kahve that was taken from the Arabic qahwah.

The origin of the beverage may date back to around the 10th Century A.D., but the first definite information is from the late 15th Century, in which the Sufi Imam Muhammad Ibn Said al-Dhabhani is known to have imported goods from Ethiopia to Yemen, including coffee.

According to one legend, the effect of the coffee fruits was detected in the 9th Century by an Ethiopian goatherder who noticed that when his goats were nibbling on the bright red berries of a bush, they became very energetic. He then chewed on the fruit himself and, exhilarated by the taste, brought some berries to a monk in a nearby monastery. However, the monk disapproved of them and threw them into the fire, whereupon an enticing aroma filled the room, causing other monks to come and find out what caused it. They raked the roasted beans from the embers, ground them up, and dissolved the powder in hot water, thus producing the world’s first cup of coffee.

Coffee is produced from several species, of which the two most popular are C. arabica, which accounts for about 60-80% of the world’s production, and C. canephora, known as robusta, which accounts for about 20-40%.

A famous coffee type from Indonesia is the so-called kopi luwak, which is made from partially digested coffee fruits, which have been eaten and defecated by the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus).

During a stay in Bali I visited a coffee plantation, where luwak coffee was produced, and I tasted a sample. It is really good, so it is not idle talk. I recommended the drink to a lady passing by, but she said: “If it is that coffee, where they use that animal, I don’t want any!”

Well-well! The beans had of course been thoroughly cleaned, and then boiled, so her disgust was purely psychological.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leaves are alternate, trifoliate, leaflets ovate, to 14 cm long and 6 cm wide, tip pointed, base rounded base, margin entire or with shallow, rounded teeth. The fragrant flowers are to 2 cm across, in short, pendent, unbranched, terminal or axillary clusters, petals pale green or yellowish, to 8 mm long, stamens many, with short filaments and pale brown anthers.

The fruit is globular or ovoid, to 25 cm across, with a hard, woody, smooth, green shell, which turns yellow when ripe. It has 8-20 sections filled with aromatic orange pulp, each section with 6-10 oblong, flat seeds, about 1 cm long. The pulp is consumed fresh, or made into jam and drinks, and it is also added to sweets. It contains vitamins, minerals, and fibers, and is used in treatment of infections, diabetes, ulcers, diarrhoea, dysentery, and lung problems.

An extract from roots and bark is used for fever. The flowers are used for perfumes, and the fruit pulp is sometimes used as a detergent. Various items are made from the very hard wood, including wheel hubs. The plant is sacred to Hindus, and its leaves are often presented as an offering to the mighty god Shiva.

A very strange custom, which used to be common among the Newar people of Nepal, was the ‘marriage’ of little girls to a fruit from the bel tree, which was regarded as a symbol of Shiva’s son Kumar. The ‘marriage’ ceremony was similar to a genuine marriage. This marriage could not be annulled, but it didn’t prevent the girl from marrying a genuine man. The original reason for this remarkable custom was that, according to ancient Hindu tradition, a widow was supposed to commit suicide in a terrible ritual, sati, during which she would throw herself into her husband’s funeral pyre. A Newar widow, however, did not have to perform this act, as her first husband, Kumar-bel, was still alive!

The generic name refers to Aegle, one of the Hesperides in Greek mythology, nymphs who guarded golden apples. Undoubtedly, the name alludes to the yellow fruits of the bel tree.

The specific name stems from Portuguese marmelos de Beggla, which means ‘Bengal quince’, alluding to the resemblance of the fruit to quince (Cydonia oblonga).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

They are shubs or small trees with glossy leaves, fragrant white flowers, and globular, ellipsoid, or oblong, juicy fruits, which have a leathery rind with many oil glands.

All Citrus species are an excellent source of various vitamins, especially vitamin C. In the days of Vasco da Gama (1460s – 1524) and Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521), up to 80% of the sailors on board sailing ships died of scurvy, by Sir Richard Hawkins (1562-1622) called “the plague of the Sea, and the Spoyle of Mariners.” As a preventive, captains began to bring ample provisions of vinegar, mustard, malt, and sauerkraut, which were a quite effective means to prevent outbreaks of the dreaded disease. Later, British ships were required by law to bring lemons or limes, which are even more effective against scurvy, on their journeys.

Delicious juice is made from many types, notably orange (C. x sinensis), lemon (C. x limon), and lime (C. x aurantiifolia). Marmalade is produced from various species, mostly bitter orange (C. x aurantium var. amara) and bergamot orange (C. bergamia). Pulp from the production is used as cattle feed.

The rind of several species contains essential oils, used in the perfume industry, for instance in Vietnam, where perfume is made from flowers of pomelo (C. maxima). An essential oil of bergamot orange is added as flavouring to two tea varieties, Earl Grey and Lady Grey, and also to various types of sweets, including Turkish Delight. In Sweden and Norway, this oil is often added as flavouring to snus, a popular tobacco product. In Italy, a liqueur named Liquore al Bergamotto, is derived from bergamot.

In today’s herbal medicine, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds of various Citrus species are used for a number of ailments, including cold, fever, cough, asthma, tonsillitis, and stomach disorders. An essential oil from bergamot orange is recommended for treatment of shingles, and in southern Italy juice of bergamot was formerly used against malaria.

Juice of leech lime (C. hystrix) is utilized as an insecticide.

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the cedrat or citron tree (C. medica), presumably derived from Ancient Greek kedros, the classical name of the cedar tree (Cedrus), referring to the cedar-like fragrance of the leaves and fruit of the cedrat.

Below, a few Citrus species are described, followed by a number of hybrids.

 

Pomelo is rich in vitamin C, potassium, and antioxidants, and it is utilized in traditional medicine for various ailments.

Tool handles are made from the wood.

The popular name is possibly a variant of the old Dutch name pompelmoes, which may stem from Portuguese pomos limões (‘citrus fruit’ or ‘lemon’), or from Old Dutch pompel (‘thick’ or ‘swollen’) and moes (‘food’), or from pompoen (‘pumpkin’), referring to its large size. Some sources suggest that the word may stem from Tamil pampalimacu (‘large citrus fruit’), but other sources maintain that this word was a loan from the Dutch word, not the other way around.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The name cedrat alludes to its cedar-like fragrance.

A rather grotesque form of cedrat is the variety sarkodactylis, in daily speech called Buddha’s Hand due to the shape of the fruit. It is utilized to add fragrance to clothing etc. Dried peel of unripe fruits is taken as a tonic.

 

 

 

 

 

In the original wild populations, the flesh was bitter, but through hybridization with pomelo it became sweet. It is eaten raw or made into juice.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘netted’, alluding to the surface of the skin. The term mandarin was first used by the French, it is not clear why.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit is widely used for its acidic juice and oil in beverages, pies, and marinades, and as a natural preservative. It is also used in cosmetics. Medicinally, it is used to treat infections, and it contains antioxidants.

The specific name is derived from the Latin aurantium (‘orange’) and folium (‘leaf’), referring to its leaves resembling those of the orange tree.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kumquat originated in southern China. It was mentioned in Chinese literature at least as far back as the 12th Century. In Cantonese, it is called 金橘 (gam gwat), from gam (‘golden’) and gwat (‘orange’). In English, this was corrupted to kumquat or cumquat.

Today, it is widely cultivated in warmer areas of Asia for its small, ovoid or globular, orange-coloured fruits, not much larger than olives. It is unique among citrus fruits, because the rind is edible and sweet, whereas the flesh is sour. The fruit is also used in marmalades, or added to salads, candies, and cocktails, and it is an excellent source of vitamins A and C, fiber, calcium, and antioxidants.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The lemon was probably known to the Ancient Romans, but the first written record is from Arabia in the 10th Century. The Arabs brought it to Spain, from where lemon cultivation is described by Ibn al-‘Awwam in his Kitāb al-Filāha (‘Book on Agriculture’), from the 12th Century. Today, lemon cultivation is widespread across the world in areas with warm summers and mild winters.

Lemons are an excellent source of vitamin C, and as described above in the genus section, they were often brought on sea journeys in the 1700s to prevent scurvy.

The fruit juice is used throughout the world to mix in drinks, and pulp and rind are used in cooking and baking. The peel is used to manufacture pectin, a stabilizer in food and other products. The juice can be used as mild bleach, and to remove stains, and in former times it was used as a remedy for sunburn.

The leaves are used to make a tea, and for preparing cooked meats and seafoods.

An oil, which is extracted from the skin, is used in the cosmetic industry.

Medicinally, hot lemon juice with honey is a well-known remedy for sore throat and colds. Formerly, it was taken to relieve fever, including malaria. Lemon peel helps relieve varicose veins.

The word limon is of Persian origin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The orange tree is a hybrid between pomelo and mandarin (both described above). It originated in China and was mentioned in Chinese literature as early as 314 B.C. (Source: Xu et al. 2013. The draft genome of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). Nature Genetics 45: 59-66)

It grows to about 15 m tall, leaves alternate, ovate, glossy, dark green, to 15 cm long and 8 cm wide, flowers white, fragrant, to about 5 cm across, in axillary clusters, fruit orange, globular or slightly flattened at both ends, to 10 cm across, flesh sweet or slightly sour, depending on variety. It is a very popular eating, and also used to make juice.

The flowers are used in the perfume industry, and to make orange blossom water, a counterpart of rosewater. This water is a common ingredient in French and Middle Eastern cuisines, especially in desserts and cakes. In the United States, orange flower water is used to make orange blossom scones and marshmallows. In Spain, flowers are dried and used to make orange tea. Honey is also obtained from the flowers.

Tea is also made from the leaves.

The wood is used for smoking grilled meat.

Incidentally, the name of the colour orange stems from the fruit – not the other way around. Before the introduction of the fruit, there was no expression for the colour orange, which was termed yellow or red. The name of the fruit was adopted from the Old French orange, which, in turn, was lent from the Italian arancia that was based on Arabic naranj, which was derived from the Sanskrit word for the fruit, naranga.

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘from China’.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows to about 5 m tall, bark corky, trunk, branches, and leaf-stalks usually with long, almost straight spines, but sometimes unarmed. Leaves pinnate, with 3-9 stalkless, opposite, ovate-lanceolate, pointed leaflets, to 8 cm long and 2 cm broad, entire or sparsely toothed. Leaf-stalk and rachis are mostly narrowly winged, but sometimes unwinged, rusty-downy, midrib sometimes spiny below.

Inflorescences are terminal or axillary clusters, to 7 cm long, with stalked flowers, to 1.5 mm across, calyx yellow, with 6-8 pointed lobes, petals absent. The fruit is a globular capsule, purplish-red, to 5 mm across, with a few oil glands. Seeds are black and shining.

After removing the seed, the fruit of this and several other species in the genus are dried and used as a spice, in the Himalaya known as timur, in China as Sichuan pepper, which is used in cooking.

In Nepal, root, bark, leaves, and seeds are used for a number of ailments, including toothache, cough, rheumatism, and indigestion, and also to expel intestinal worms. Bark and leaves are strewn in streams to stupefy fish. Walking sticks are made from the branches, and the twigs are used for cleaning the teeth. Fruits are pickled.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek xanthos (‘yellow’) and xylon (‘wood’), alluding to the wood of many of the species being yellow. The English name refers to the spines on trunk and branches of most species, and to the leaves, which superficially resemble those of the common ash (Fraxinus excelsior).

The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘armed’, of course alluding to the vicious spines.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It may sometimes grow to 30 m tall, but is usually much lower, with a trunk diameter up to 80 cm, bark corky, branches drooping, leaves pinnately divided, to 40 cm long, with 3-10 pairs of oblong or elliptic leaflets, each to 15 cm long and 5 cm wide. Inflorescences are terminal, much-branched clusters, to 50 cm long, flowers small, with brownish-yellow petals.

The globular, tan or brownish fruit, to about 2.5 cm across, with a thin, leathery shell, covered in tiny hairs. At maturity, it is easy to crack, revealing the translucent flesh with a single large, ball-shaped, black seed that has a circular or ovate white spot at the base, resembling a pupil in an eyeball. This gave rise to the specific name, derived from Vietnamese long nhãn or Cantonese lùhng ngáahn, both meaning ‘dragon eye’.

The flesh is sweet and juicy, whereas the seed and the peel are inedible. The fruit is often used in Asian soups, snacks, desserts, and other food, fresh or dried, and it is sometimes preserved and canned in syrup. (The seed and peel are still inedible.) It may also be fermented to make wine.

In Chinese herbal medicine, it is believed to have a calming effect.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek dis (‘two’) and karpos (‘fruit’), perhaps referring to the bilobed pistil.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the wild, it may grow to about 35 m tall, whereas cultivated trees are pruned. The leaves are pinnately divided, leathery, with 4-10 opposite, lanceolate, elliptic, or oblong, pointed leaflets, each to 20 cm long. Inflorescences are terminal clusters of 10 or more panicles, to 50 cm long, with hundreds of small, fragrant, white, yellow, or green flowers.

The fruit is variable, ball-shaped, ovoid, or heart-shaped, to 5 cm long and 4 cm wide, green when young, red, pink, orange-yellow, or purplish when ripe, with thin and tough skin, which has a granulated surface, or sometimes small, sharp prickles. The rind is inedible, whereas the white flesh is sweet and delicious. The single inedible seed is brown and shining.

Besides being eaten fresh, the flesh is used in salads and cocktails. It is rich in vitamins B and C, and antioxidants.

The generic name is derived from the Chinese name of the fruit, 荔枝 (often written as lizhi).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The flesh is white or very pale pink, with a sweet, slightly acidic taste, a bit like grapes. It is used in desserts, curries, and other dishes. The seed, which contains saturated and unsaturated fats, can be cooked and eaten, but is bitter.

This species is native to southern China, Indochina, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, but is extensively cultivated elsewhere, with more than 200 cultivars. Around the 14th Century, Arab traders brought it to Zanzibar and Pemba in present-day Tanzania, and it was also introduced to India. In the 1800s, the Dutch began cultivating it in Suriname, from where it spread to other Latin American countries.

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek nephelion (‘a small cloud’), referring to the white fruit flesh. The specific name is Latin, meaning ‘burr-like’ or ‘hairy’, referring to the fruit appendages. The common name is derived from the Malay word rambut (‘hair’), naturally also alluding to the appendages.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The bark is greyish-brown or blackish-brown, young branches green, hairless. The leaves are pinnately divided, including stalk to 45 cm long, smooth or downy, with 5-8 pairs of shiny, narrowly elliptic, lanceolate, or slightly falcate leaflets, to 15 cm long and 5 cm wide, papery, with 15-17 pairs of nearly parallel veins, base slightly asymmetrical, tip pointed, margin entire.

Inflorescences are large, terminal, pyramidal panicles, to 20 cm long. Flowers tiny, sepals 5, ovate, about 2 mm long, petals 5, cream-coloured or purple, lanceolate, about 2.5 mm long. The fruit is almost globular, smooth, often with swellings at the stalk, to 2.5 cm across, green when unripe, orange or yellow when ripe, turning black with age.

The fruit has a high content of saponin and can be used as a washing agent. It is also utilized medicinally, and for polishing silverware. The wood is used for making furniture, boards, plywood, and other items. The powdered seed is a natural insecticide, often used to rid the scalp of lice. In Nepal, a lather of the fruit is used to treat burns.

The generic name is derived from the Latin sapo (‘soap’) and indicus (‘of India’), whereas the specific name is derived from mukuroji, the Japanese name of this species.

 

 

 

 

 

 

An evergreen tree, which is native to southern Mexico and Central America, but is widely cultivated elsewhere for its sweet fruits, especially in South and Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean.

It may grow to more than 30 m tall, with a trunk diameter up to 1.5 m, but is usually smaller, especially cultivated forms. The long-stalked leaves are elliptic or ovate, to 15 cm long, margin entire, flowers small, fragrant, bell-shaped, to 1.5 cm across, petals white or greenish, often brownish and hairy outside, solitary, growing on long stalks from the leaf axils, usually terminally and very close together, resembling a cluster.

The fruit is a globular or ovoid berry, varying in size between 4 and 10 cm in length as well as width, somewhat resembling a plum. It has sweet flesh, which tastes a bit like pears. Besides being eaten fresh, it is blended into milkshakes, ice cream, marmalade, cakes, pancakes, and bread batter, and it may also be fermented into wine or vinegar. The fruit is a rich source of vitamins, fiber, and beneficial polyphenols, and it is used in traditional medicine to treat diarrhoea.

A white latex, called chicle, which is harvested from the bark, is used to make chewing gum. The bark also contains a high amount of tannin, used for tanning leather, and to preserve sails and fishing tackle.

The generic name stems from Manilha, the Portuguese name of the city Manila, combined with the south Indian Malayalam word kara (‘fruit’).

The specific name stems from zapote, a Spanish corruption of the Nahuatl word tzapotl, which was used for various sweet fruits. The name sapodilla is derived from the Spanish word zapotillo (‘little zapote’), whereas the name chiku is derived from Spanish chicozapote, a corruption of Nahuatl xicohtzapotl (‘little zapote’).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It grows to about 7.5 m tall, with spreading branches, leaves leathery, glossy green, elliptic, obovate, or oblanceolate, to about 28 cm long and 8 cm wide, in terminal whorls, tip pointed, margin entire or slightly wavy. The fragrant flowers are small, to about 1.2 cm long, petals cream-coloured or greenish-white, growing from the leaf axils, or from leafless nodes.

The fruit is to 15 cm long and 12 cm broad, variable, most often ovoid, but may occasionally be ball- or heart-shaped. It is green when young, turning bright yellow or orange-yellow at maturity. Typical weight is around 70 g, but some varieties may weigh up to 700 g. The orange flesh can be eaten fresh, having the texture of a hard-boiled egg yolk. The taste is sweet, a bit musky, which I personally find a bit sickly. It is also utilized in marmalade, pancakes, milk shakes, ice cream, and custard, and as flour.

The wood is occasionally used as planks, and in some places its latex has been used to adulterate chicle (see sapodilla above).

The generic name is derived from pouteri, a name used in Cayenne (French Guiana) for another species in the genus. The specific name refers to Campeche, a coastal city in Mexico, where it is native.

The name canistel is believed to stem from an indigenous Central American language. It is quite closely related to sapota (above), which gave rise to the name yellow sapote.

 

 

 

 

 

 

They are known by a number of popular names, including green pepper, red pepper, chili, cayenne pepper, jalapeño, tabasco pepper, African pepper, and piri-piri. The name chili is the old Nahuatl name of the plant, whereas the name cayenne pepper stems from Cayenne (French Guiana), from where this type was first introduced to Europe.

They have been utilized as food in Central America since at least 7500 B.C. Green or red fruits are eaten fresh, fried, or pickled, or as a vegetable in dishes. Dried or pounded fruits are a very popular spice. The leaves are also edible, widely used in Asian cuisines. The fruits are very rich in several vitamins, besides potassium, iron, magnesium, and manganese.

The fruits have antiseptic and stimulant properties, and powdered fruits are taken for indigestion and stomach disorders, and also for other ailments, including fever, headache, herpes, arthritis, Raynaud’s disease (‘white fingers’), psoriasis, and shingles. Juice of the fruit is applied to the skin to increase blood circulation, and a liniment is applied to sprains and painful joints. In some places, they are used as an aphrodisiac.

In his Flora Medica, from 1838, English botanist John Lindley (1799-1865) describes Capsicum annuum thus: “It is employed in medicine, in combination with Cinchona [a plant in the family Rubiaceae] in intermittent and lethargic affections, and also in atonic gout, dyspepsia accompanied by flatulence, tympanitis, paralysis, etc. Its most valuable application appears however to be in cynanche maligna [acute diphtheria] and scarlatina maligna [malignant scarlet fever], used either as a gargle or administered internally.”

The generic name is derived from Ancient Greek kapsikos (‘box-like’), presumably referring to the fruit shape of some types.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a shrub, to 5 m tall, leaves stalked, dark green, with soft hairs on both surfaces, broadly ovate or heart-shaped, very large, to 40 cm long and 30 cm wide, emitting a pungent or musky smell when crushed. The star-shaped flowers are fragrant, to 2.5 cm across, petals white, pale pink, or lavender. They grow in terminal clusters of 10-20 flowers, sometimes more.

The fruit is a fleshy, ovoid berry, occasionally growing to 10 cm long and 6 cm across, but usually smaller, colour varying, yellow, orange, red, or pale purple. Yellow and orange types are sweet, red ones more acid. They have a high content of vitamins and iron, but few calories, about 40 per fruit. It is eaten raw by scooping out the flesh. In the highlands of Ecuador, yellow tamarillos are used in ceviche (raw fish or seafood, marinated in lime juice) and to flavour food, whereas the red variety is used for desserts. Elsewhere, the fruit is mixed with water to make juice, or added to chutneys, pickles, and curries.

There are various explanations of the generic name. It may be derived from the Latin solamen, from solor (‘to comfort’ or ‘to console’) and the noun-forming suffix men, thus ‘comfort’ or ‘consolation’, alluding to the sedative, narcotic, or soothing properties of some species of the genus. Others suggest that it may be derived from the Latin sol (’sun’), referring to the fact that plants of this genus prefer to grow in sunny places.

The specific name is derived from the Latin beta (‘beet’), thus ‘resembling a beet”, which may refer to the leaves or the fruit colour.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It originated in the northern Andes and Central America, where it was utilized as food for several thousand years. During their conquest of the Aztec Empire, the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time. In Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, the fruit was called xitomatl (‘plump fruit with a navel’), derived from tomatl (‘plump fruit’). In Spanish, this word became tomate, which, in various forms, was adopted by virtually all European languages.

The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés (1485-1547) brought its seeds back to Europe. As the plants readily grew in the local climate, the Spanish government started encouraging its production, and by the early 17th Century, it had become a common ingredient in the Spanish cuisine.

In other European countries, however, it took ages before people began eating tomatoes. Initially, the English thought they were poisonous, calling them wolf peaches. In 1758, this name was adopted by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), when he named the plant Solanum lycopersicum, derived from Ancient Greek lykos (‘wolf’) and the Latin persicum (‘Persian (fruit)’, i.e. peach). His life and career are described on the page People: Famous naturalists.

This belief arose because many people got sick when they ate tomatoes. However, the tomato was not to be blamed. In the Middle Ages, wealthy Europeans often ate from pewter plates, which had a high content of lead. Tomatoes are rather acidic, and when placed on pewter plates, this acid would leach lead from the plate, resulting in many deaths from lead poisoning. At that time, nobody made the connection between plate and poison, and the tomato was thought to be the culprit. (Source: smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The fruit, classified as a berry, varies greatly, ranging from globular and only 3 cm wide in escaped plants to cultivars with greatly elongated, ovoid or globular fruits, some types to 35 cm long, others to 10 cm across, and from glossy purple to pure white. The flesh is pale brown or white, with a slightly bitter taste, which is lessened by adding salt to sliced fruits before frying or roasting them, or adding them to curries. It is nutritious and low in calories.

In traditional medicine, the fruit is used to manage blood cholesterol, blood pressure, diabetes, and inflammation, and juice from the leaves is applied in case of skin problems.

The specific name stems from Sanskrit vatigama, which became al-badinjan in Arabic, corrupted to melitzana in Byzantine Greek, and later Latinized as melongena. In Sicilian it was called melanzana, which in folklore was corrupted to mela insana (‘the apple that makes you mad’), due to the misconception that it would cause insanity.

In most European languages, it is called aubergine, which also stems from a corruption of the Arabic al-badinjan. In South Asia and elsewhere it is known as brinjal, again a corruption of the Arabic name.

In North America and Australia, the name eggplant is more common. This name, which was first recorded in 1763, was originally applied to cultivars, whose small, white fruits resembled a hen’s eggs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

It is a woody climber, which may reach a length of up to 35 m, though cultivated plants are typically pruned to heights of 1-3 m. Bark on older stems peels off in strips. Leaves are circular in outline, to 20 cm across, palmately divided with 3-5 toothed lobes. Inflorescences are dense clusters of tiny, greenish or white flowers, only a few mm across. The fruit is a fleshy berry, ovoid or globular, occasionally up to 3 cm across, but more commonly to 2 cm. It contains up to 6 pear-shaped seeds.

Fruits are eaten raw, or fermented to make wine. In Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisines, tender young leaves are commonly wrapped around rice, herbs, and meat, which is then simmering in a lemon-olive oil broth. This dish is called dolma or sarma. Leaves, dipped in saltwater, are added to fermented pickles for the flavour.

The leaves are rich in antioxidants, and in traditional medicine they are used to treat inflammation, diarrhoea, and haemorrhoids.

In Greek mythology, Dionysos was originally the god of nature, and especially plants, but was later regarded as god of wet elements, in particular wine and blood. Initially, the major part of his followers were women, who, clad in animal skins and wearing wreaths of ivy (Hedera helix), wandered into the woods, carrying snakes and long lances with garlands of ivy, and a cone from stone pine (Pinus pinea) pierced at the point. Accompanied by music from whistles and tambourines, they danced themselves into an ecstatic frenzy, during which they believed that they saw milk, wine, and honey flow from Dionysos’s mouth. They caught wild animals, drank their blood, and wrapped their skins around their bodies. The were possessed by madness, mania, and were therefore called maenads (literally ‘the raving ones’).

The generic name is the classical Latin name of the common grapevine, originally from Proto-Indo-European wehitis (‘the one that twines or bends’).

The specific name is derived from the Latin vinum (‘wine’) and fer (‘carrying’).